{"id":11282,"date":"2025-11-06T06:49:44","date_gmt":"2025-11-06T06:49:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/?p=11282"},"modified":"2025-11-06T06:57:34","modified_gmt":"2025-11-06T06:57:34","slug":"challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/","title":{"rendered":"Challenges In Undertaking Litigation In Cases Of Human Rights Violation"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>Human rights litigation in India is an ongoing conversation between constitutional ideals and ground realities. The Constitution promises every person dignity, equality and protection of life \u2014 yet, in many instances, the same state machinery entrusted to uphold these rights becomes the site of violation. For victims, especially from marginalised groups, seeking redress is rarely straightforward: it is a legal, emotional and procedural gauntlet. This blog outlines the legal foundation that empowers victims, the practical obstacles litigants face, key judicial and statutory anchors, and realistic reforms that could make litigation a genuine path to justice.<\/p><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_82_2 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#The_Legal_Backbone_%E2%80%94_Where_Victims_Can_Turn\" >The Legal Backbone \u2014 Where Victims Can Turn<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Judicial_Interventions\" >Judicial Interventions<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Why_Litigation_Is_So_Hard_Police_Non-Acknowledgement_and_Deliberate_Delay\" >Why Litigation Is So Hard: Police Non-Acknowledgement and Deliberate Delay<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Institutional_and_Non-Institutional_Constraints\" >Institutional and Non-Institutional Constraints<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#NHRC_and_SHRCs\" >NHRC and SHRCs<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Forensics_and_Evidence_Infrastructure\" >Forensics and Evidence Infrastructure<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Legal_Aid_and_Awareness\" >Legal Aid and Awareness<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Evidence_Problems_How_Proof_Becomes_the_Real_Battlefield\" >Evidence Problems: How Proof Becomes the Real Battlefield<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Landmark_Cases_That_Shape_Litigation_Strategy\" >Landmark Cases That Shape Litigation Strategy<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Real-Life_Snapshots_How_Statistics_and_Cases_Tell_the_Story\" >Real-Life Snapshots: How Statistics and Cases Tell the Story<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Emblematic_Cases\" >Emblematic Cases<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Practical_Litigation_Strategies_%E2%80%94_What_Works\" >Practical Litigation Strategies \u2014 What Works<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#The_Way_Forward_%E2%80%94_Reforms_That_Matter\" >The Way Forward \u2014 Reforms That Matter<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/challenges-in-undertaking-litigation-in-cases-of-human-rights-violation\/#Conclusion\" >Conclusion<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n<h2 id=\"legal-backbone\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Legal_Backbone_%E2%80%94_Where_Victims_Can_Turn\"><\/span>The Legal Backbone \u2014 Where Victims Can Turn<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>At the heart of human rights litigation in India lies Article 21 (Right to life and personal liberty), read together with Articles 14, 19 and 22. These constitutional guarantees are enforced through writ jurisdiction (Articles 32 and 226). Beyond the Constitution, the <strong>Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993<\/strong> (establishing the NHRC and SHRCs) provides statutory space for complaints and investigations.<\/p>\n<p>Criminal procedure rules (CrPC Sections such as 154 on FIRs, 164 on recorded statements, and 197 on sanction for prosecution of public servants) and the Indian Evidence Act shape how cases proceed in practice. These instruments create the legal scaffolding victims use to hold the state accountable \u2014 but they do not by themselves ensure meaningful outcomes.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"judicial-interventions\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Judicial_Interventions\"><\/span>Judicial Interventions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Supreme Court\u2019s directions in <strong>D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal (1997)<\/strong> \u2014 arrest memos, prompt medical examination, informing relatives, and production before a magistrate \u2014 remain fundamental safeguards to prevent custodial abuse. These procedural injunctions are often the first line of defense in custody-related litigation.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"litigation-challenges\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Why_Litigation_Is_So_Hard_Police_Non-Acknowledgement_and_Deliberate_Delay\"><\/span>Why Litigation Is So Hard: Police Non-Acknowledgement and Deliberate Delay<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>One of the most immediate obstacles victims encounter is police reluctance to accept, record or properly investigate complaints. Refusal to register an FIR (the gateway to criminal investigation) is still common; when FIRs are refused, victims are forced to approach courts for mandamus \u2014 an extra step that consumes precious time and erodes evidence.<\/p>\n<p>The Supreme Court\u2019s decision in <strong>Lalita Kumari v. Government of Uttar Pradesh (2014)<\/strong> made FIR registration mandatory in cognizable cases and clarified when preliminary inquiries are permissible, but practical resistance persists at the station level.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Police may manipulate station diaries or arrest timings.<\/li>\n<li>Investigations often lack impartiality when police are accused.<\/li>\n<li>Victims face intimidation and threats when pressing complaints.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"institutional-constraints\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Institutional_and_Non-Institutional_Constraints\"><\/span>Institutional and Non-Institutional Constraints<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"nhrc-shrc\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"NHRC_and_SHRCs\"><\/span>NHRC and SHRCs<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Created by the <strong>Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993<\/strong>, these commissions can inquire and recommend but their recommendations are advisory. Many NHRC reports document custodial deaths and delays in implementation, underscoring the need for binding powers.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"forensic-evidence\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Forensics_and_Evidence_Infrastructure\"><\/span>Forensics and Evidence Infrastructure<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many districts lack accredited forensic labs or prompt testing facilities. Chain-of-custody procedures are lax, and delayed medical examinations often weaken cases.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"legal-aid\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Legal_Aid_and_Awareness\"><\/span>Legal Aid and Awareness<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Though NALSA and state legal services exist, awareness and access remain uneven. Vulnerable groups often lack sustained legal representation and financial support.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"evidence-problems\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Evidence_Problems_How_Proof_Becomes_the_Real_Battlefield\"><\/span>Evidence Problems: How Proof Becomes the Real Battlefield<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"8\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Evidence Issue<\/th>\n<th>Impact on Litigation<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Delayed Medical Exams<\/td>\n<td>Injuries fade, reducing credibility of torture or assault claims.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Broken Chain of Custody<\/td>\n<td>Allows defense to allege tampering, weakening proof.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Manipulated Records<\/td>\n<td>Fabricated station diaries or memos challenge authenticity.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Lack of Independent Testing<\/td>\n<td>State labs\u2019 credibility questioned; need for independent forensic verification.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The <strong>DNA Technology (Use and Application) Regulation Bill, 2019<\/strong> aims to regulate and ensure transparency in DNA-based evidence, though implementation challenges persist.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"landmark-cases\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Landmark_Cases_That_Shape_Litigation_Strategy\"><\/span>Landmark Cases That Shape Litigation Strategy<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><a href=\"\/legal\/article-17822-safeguarding-fundamental-rights-the-impact-and-implementation-of-the-dk-basu-guidelines-on-custodial-violence-in-india.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal<\/a> (1997)<\/strong> \u2014 Procedural safeguards for arrested persons.<\/li>\n<li><strong><a href=\"\/legal\/article-10333-the-exigency-of-police-reforms-in-india.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Prakash Singh v. Union of India<\/a> (2006)<\/strong> \u2014 Directions for structural police reforms.<\/li>\n<li><strong><a href=\"\/legal\/article-586-role-of-decisions-law-in-developing-concept-of-compensatory-jurisprudence.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Nilabati Behera v. State of Orissa<\/a> (1993)<\/strong> \u2014 Recognition of state liability for custodial death and compensation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"statistics\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Real-Life_Snapshots_How_Statistics_and_Cases_Tell_the_Story\"><\/span>Real-Life Snapshots: How Statistics and Cases Tell the Story<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Statistics from NHRC reports show thousands of custodial-death intimations yearly. Media reports highlight state-wise spikes. These are not mere numbers but families seeking justice amidst institutional barriers.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"emblematic-cases\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Emblematic_Cases\"><\/span>Emblematic Cases<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Nilabati Behera (1993):<\/strong> Compensation for custodial death.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Lalita Kumari (2014):<\/strong> Mandatory FIR registration.<\/li>\n<li>Recent civil society PILs have exposed patterns of harassment and unlawful detention.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"litigation-strategies\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Practical_Litigation_Strategies_%E2%80%94_What_Works\"><\/span>Practical Litigation Strategies \u2014 What Works<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Secure FIR registration or file for mandamus.<\/li>\n<li>Seek independent medical examination and preserve early evidence.<\/li>\n<li>Use D.K. Basu guidelines and request judicial supervision in investigations.<\/li>\n<li>File NHRC\/SHRC complaints parallelly to create record pressure.<\/li>\n<li>Request CBI or SIT investigation in conflict-of-interest cases.<\/li>\n<li>Seek interim relief \u2014 compensation or legal aid.<\/li>\n<li>Engage media, NGOs, and pro bono counsel for advocacy and visibility.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"reforms\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Way_Forward_%E2%80%94_Reforms_That_Matter\"><\/span>The Way Forward \u2014 Reforms That Matter<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ol>\n<li>Implement <strong>Prakash Singh directives<\/strong> fully and uniformly.<\/li>\n<li>Empower human rights commissions with binding powers and stronger investigative capacity.<\/li>\n<li>Modernize forensic infrastructure and enforce chain-of-custody rigorously.<\/li>\n<li>Ensure nationwide witness protection, legal aid, and speedy trial mechanisms.<\/li>\n<li>Embed human-rights education in police training, ensure CCTV in stations, and transparent registers.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion\"><\/span>Conclusion<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Litigating human rights violations in India is both necessary and arduous. The law and landmark judgments provide powerful tools \u2014 but law is only as effective as institutions allow. When victims confront state agents, litigation must be backed by strong procedural steps, scientific evidence, and institutional pressure. The remedy is not only legal: it is administrative reform, forensic modernization, and social empowerment. Until these elements align, human rights litigation will continue to be a struggle for many \u2014 a struggle the justice system must be designed to win, not to make enduringly painful.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Get to know about the challenges faced by lawyers in cases of human rights violation.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":691,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_topic_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_reply_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"two_page_speed":[],"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"_joinchat":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[16],"tags":[24],"class_list":{"0":"post-11282","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","6":"category-human-rights","7":"tag-just-in"},"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/11282","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/691"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=11282"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/11282\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=11282"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=11282"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=11282"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}