{"id":13606,"date":"2025-12-28T06:35:44","date_gmt":"2025-12-28T06:35:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/?p=13606"},"modified":"2025-12-28T06:44:40","modified_gmt":"2025-12-28T06:44:40","slug":"ai-and-criminal-liability","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/","title":{"rendered":"AI and Criminal Liability"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"introduction-to-ai-and-criminal-liability\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Introduction\"><\/span>Introduction<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Artificial intelligence has rapidly transformed various sectors, including healthcare, transportation, finance, and law enforcement. While AI systems enhance efficiency and decision-making, their increasing autonomy raises serious concerns when criminal harm occurs. Traditional criminal law is based on human conduct and intent, making it difficult to attribute liability to artificial intelligence. This research paper examines the challenges AI poses to established principles of criminal liability and explores possible legal approaches to ensure accountability in the age of intelligent machines.<\/p><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_82_2 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Introduction\" >Introduction<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Legal_Framework_and_Provisions\" >Legal Framework and Provisions<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Applicable_Acts_and_Laws\" >Applicable Acts and Laws<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Punishments_in_India_%E2%80%93_Relevant_Sections\" >Punishments in India \u2013 Relevant Sections<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Case_Law_Summary\" >Case Law Summary<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#1_Mrs_X_vs_Union_of_India_and_Ors_26_April_2023\" >1. Mrs. X vs Union of India and Ors (26 April 2023)<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-4' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Facts_of_the_Case\" >Facts of the Case<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Issues_Considered\" >Issues Considered<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Arguments\" >Arguments<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Judgment\" >Judgment<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#2_Shri_Harish_Chandra_Singh_Rawat_vs_Union_of_India_Another\" >2. Shri Harish Chandra Singh Rawat vs Union of India &amp; Another<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-4' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Court_Bench_and_Date\" >Court, Bench, and Date<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Background_and_What_the_Case_Was_About\" >Background and What the Case Was About<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Key_Legal_Issues_Raised\" >Key Legal Issues Raised<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-5' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-5'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Whether_There_Was_a_Constitutional_Breakdown\" >Whether There Was a Constitutional Breakdown<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-5'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-16\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Allegations_of_Horse-Trading_and_Political_Motive\" >Allegations of Horse-Trading and Political Motive<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-5'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-17\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Procedural_Issues_Before_Presidents_Rule\" >Procedural Issues Before President\u2019s Rule<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-18\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Respondents_Union_and_State_Position\" >Respondents\u2019 (Union and State) Position<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-19\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Outcome_Judgment\" >Outcome (Judgment)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-20\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Legal_Importance\" >Legal Importance<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-21\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#3_Shilpa_Shetty_Kundra_vs_Getoutlivein_Ors_%E2%80%94_Interim_Application_L_38469_of_2025\" >3. Shilpa Shetty Kundra vs Getoutlive.in &amp; Ors \u2014 Interim Application (L) 38469 of 2025<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-22\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Facts_of_the_Case-2\" >Facts of the Case<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-23\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Parties_Involved\" >Parties Involved<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-24\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Nature_of_Complaint\" >Nature of Complaint<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-25\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Alleged_Harms\" >Alleged Harms<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-26\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Reliefs_Sought\" >Reliefs Sought<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-27\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Issues_Raised\" >Issues Raised<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-28\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Interim_Judgment_Directions\" >Interim Judgment \/ Directions<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-29\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Protection_of_Privacy_and_Digital_Identity\" >Protection of Privacy and Digital Identity<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-30\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Takedown_Orders\" >Takedown Orders<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-31\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Substantive_Issues_Reserved\" >Substantive Issues Reserved<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-32\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Legal_Principles_Highlighted\" >Legal Principles Highlighted<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-33\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Personality_Rights_and_Privacy\" >Personality Rights and Privacy<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-34\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#AI_and_Deepfakes\" >AI and Deepfakes<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-35\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Contemporary_Significance\" >Contemporary Significance<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-36\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Impact_on_Society\" >Impact on Society<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-37\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#Conclusion\" >Conclusion<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-38\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ai-and-criminal-liability\/#References\" >References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"legal-framework-and-provisions\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Legal_Framework_and_Provisions\"><\/span>Legal Framework and Provisions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>At present, there is no specific legislation governing criminal liability of artificial intelligence. Existing criminal laws, such as the Indian Penal Code, 1860 (now Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023), are based on human intention and conduct. Liability related to AI is generally addressed through principles of vicarious liability, negligence, and corporate criminal liability. Emerging frameworks like data protection laws and proposed AI regulations seek to address accountability gaps arising from autonomous technologies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"applicable-acts-and-laws\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Applicable_Acts_and_Laws\"><\/span>Applicable Acts and Laws<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023<\/strong> \u2013 Governs criminal liability, including negligence, abetment, and intent. Human actors responsible for AI actions are punished under relevant sections.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Information Technology Act, 2000<\/strong> \u2013 Addresses unauthorized access, data breaches, and misuse of digital\/AI systems. Sections 43 and 66 are often cited.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Indian Penal Code, 1860 (for older cases)<\/strong> \u2013 Principles of criminal liability, including negligence, abetment, and corporate responsibility, can be applied to AI-related incidents.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Emerging AI Regulations<\/strong> \u2013 Proposed policies and guidelines (e.g., NITI Aayog AI policy) may influence future liability frameworks.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"punishments-in-india-relevant-sections\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Punishments_in_India_%E2%80%93_Relevant_Sections\"><\/span>Punishments in India \u2013 Relevant Sections<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Since AI cannot be punished, liability is fixed on humans or corporations under existing laws.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Law \/ Section<\/th><th>Nature of Liability<\/th><th>Punishment<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Section 106, Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023<\/td><td>Culpable mental state for offences committed through AI<\/td><td>Imprisonment or fine, depending on the offence<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Section 111, BNS, 2023<\/td><td>Rash or negligent acts causing harm<\/td><td>Imprisonment up to two years, or fine, or both<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Sections on Abetment (BNS)<\/td><td>Use of AI as a tool to commit an offence<\/td><td>Same punishment as the principal offence<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Section 43 &amp; Section 66, Information Technology Act, 2000<\/td><td>Unauthorized access or misuse of AI-driven systems<\/td><td>Compensation, imprisonment up to three years, or fine<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Corporate Criminal Liability (BNS &amp; IT Act)<\/td><td>Offences committed through corporate-controlled AI systems<\/td><td>Heavy fines, compensation, and regulatory sanctions<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"case-law-summary\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Case_Law_Summary\"><\/span>Case Law Summary<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"mrs-x-vs-union-of-india-2023\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"1_Mrs_X_vs_Union_of_India_and_Ors_26_April_2023\"><\/span>1. Mrs. X vs Union of India and Ors (26 April 2023)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"facts-of-the-case-mrs-x\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Facts_of_the_Case\"><\/span>Facts of the Case<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The petitioner, Mrs. X, was a victim of non-consensual intimate images (NCII) circulated online.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The accused coerced her, took explicit images, and leaked them on websites and a YouTube channel.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>She attempted to get these images removed through intermediaries such as Google and Microsoft, but they failed to act promptly.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>She filed a writ petition under Article 226 of the Constitution and Section 482 CrPC seeking:\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Protection of her rights<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Removal of the offensive content<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Registration of an FIR<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"issues-considered-mrs-x\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Issues_Considered\"><\/span>Issues Considered<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Whether intermediaries are legally obliged to remove NCII promptly under the Information Technology Act.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How to protect the fundamental rights of victims, including privacy and dignity.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What guidelines courts can issue for swift action against online sexual abuse.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"arguments-advanced-mrs-x\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Arguments\"><\/span>Arguments<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The petitioner argued that immediate removal was necessary to prevent irreparable harm.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>She contended that failure of intermediaries violated her right to privacy and dignity.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Union of India and intermediaries claimed that existing IT Act guidelines regulate content removal.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>They cautioned against judicial overreach.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Court examined the need to balance freedom of speech with the right to privacy and dignity, emphasizing timely compliance to prevent trauma.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"judgment-mrs-x\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Judgment\"><\/span>Judgment<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The Court directed intermediaries to act promptly in removing NCII content.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It strengthened complaint and takedown mechanisms under the IT Act.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The judgment highlighted the protection of victims\u2019 privacy and dignity.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It ensured speedy redressal of online sexual abuse cases.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The case was disposed of with guidelines for authorities and intermediaries to follow, reducing harm to victims.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"harish-rawat-vs-union-of-india\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"2_Shri_Harish_Chandra_Singh_Rawat_vs_Union_of_India_Another\"><\/span>2. Shri Harish Chandra Singh Rawat vs Union of India &amp; Another<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"court-and-bench-rawat\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Court_Bench_and_Date\"><\/span>Court, Bench, and Date<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><tbody><tr><th>High Court<\/th><td>High Court of Uttarakhand at Nainital<\/td><\/tr><tr><th>Judgment Date<\/th><td>21 April 2016<\/td><\/tr><tr><th>Bench<\/th><td>Chief Justice K.M. Joseph &amp; Justice V.K. Bist<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"background-rawat\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Background_and_What_the_Case_Was_About\"><\/span>Background and What the Case Was About<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Harish Chandra Singh Rawat, then Chief Minister of Uttarakhand, challenged the proclamation of President\u2019s Rule in Uttarakhand issued on 27 March 2016 under Article 356 of the Indian Constitution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Rawat\u2019s petition argued that the President\u2019s Rule proclamation and the Union Government\u2019s recommendation were unconstitutional, illegal, and based on false or insufficient material. He alleged that the process leading to the invocation of Article 356 was mala fide and aimed at toppling a democratically elected Congress government.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>He sought orders to:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Quash the Article 356 proclamation<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Restore his government<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Invalidate all consequential acts and orders passed during President\u2019s Rule<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The case arose during a political crisis in the Uttarakhand Assembly involving disputes over a money (appropriation) bill, demands for a division of votes, and alleged attempts by rebel MLAs to destabilize the government.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"key-legal-issues-rawat\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Legal_Issues_Raised\"><\/span>Key Legal Issues Raised<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"constitutional-breakdown\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Whether_There_Was_a_Constitutional_Breakdown\"><\/span>Whether There Was a Constitutional Breakdown<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Rawat argued that the Centre\u2019s action under Article 356 was unjustified.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>He claimed there was no valid loss of majority in the Assembly.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Governor and Union Government relied on a Speaker\u2019s procedural dispute and a questionable bill passage to conclude constitutional breakdown.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"horse-trading-allegations\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Allegations_of_Horse-Trading_and_Political_Motive\"><\/span>Allegations of Horse-Trading and Political Motive<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The petitioner alleged that a doctored video and other evidence were improperly used.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>He claimed these materials were unverified and unjustified grounds for imposing President\u2019s Rule.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"procedural-fairness-rawat\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Procedural_Issues_Before_Presidents_Rule\"><\/span>Procedural Issues Before President\u2019s Rule<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Rawat argued he was never given a fair opportunity to respond.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>He asserted that the chronology of events showed unfair conduct by the Governor and the Centre.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"respondents-position-rawat\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Respondents_Union_and_State_Position\"><\/span>Respondents\u2019 (Union and State) Position<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The Union of India asserted that sufficient material existed to justify invoking Article 356.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>They relied on a representation by 27 MLAs demanding a division of vote.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This was said to indicate a potential loss of confidence.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>They argued that continuation of the government without a confidence vote amounted to constitutional breakdown.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>They also claimed the petitioner had misleadingly presented facts regarding voting and majority.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"outcome-rawat\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Outcome_Judgment\"><\/span>Outcome (Judgment)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The publicly available excerpts do not fully record the final order of the High Court. The document contains the oral judgment and detailed arguments up to a point but does not clearly state whether the writ petition was allowed or dismissed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In Article 356 cases, courts typically examine:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Whether the material justified the President\u2019s satisfaction<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Whether constitutional processes were followed<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Whether there was a real breakdown of constitutional machinery<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>To determine the exact ruling, the complete judgment must be obtained from an official High Court repository.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"legal-importance-rawat\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Legal_Importance\"><\/span>Legal Importance<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>This case is an example of judicial review of Article 356 (President\u2019s Rule) and echoes principles laid down in <em>S.R. Bommai vs Union of India<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Article 356 must be used sparingly.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It can be invoked only when a genuine breakdown of constitutional machinery exists.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Courts act as \u201csentinels on the qui vive\u201d to protect federal structure and prevent arbitrary dismissal of elected governments.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"shilpa-shetty-vs-getoutlive-2025\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"3_Shilpa_Shetty_Kundra_vs_Getoutlivein_Ors_%E2%80%94_Interim_Application_L_38469_of_2025\"><\/span>3. Shilpa Shetty Kundra vs Getoutlive.in &amp; Ors \u2014 Interim Application (L) 38469 of 2025<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"facts-of-the-case\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Facts_of_the_Case-2\"><\/span>Facts of the Case<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"parties-involved\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Parties_Involved\"><\/span>Parties Involved<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Applicant:<\/strong> Shilpa Shetty Kundra, a Bollywood actor and public figure.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Respondents:<\/strong> Getoutlive.in and multiple other websites\/platforms (Respondent Nos. 1\u201328), including governmental bodies (MeitY and DoT).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"nature-of-complaint\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Nature_of_Complaint\"><\/span>Nature of Complaint<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Unauthorized use of the applicant\u2019s photographs and likeness.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>AI-generated deepfake content depicting her in obscene\/sexually explicit scenarios.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Content circulated across multiple online platforms without consent.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"alleged-harms\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Alleged_Harms\"><\/span>Alleged Harms<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Violation of her fundamental rights under Article 21 (privacy, dignity).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Irreparable harm to reputation and public image.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Harassment and humiliation due to online circulation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"reliefs-sought\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Reliefs_Sought\"><\/span>Reliefs Sought<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Immediate takedown of infringing URLs\/content.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Blocking access to AI-generated obscene deepfake content.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"issues-raised\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Issues_Raised\"><\/span>Issues Raised<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Prima Facie Violation of Personality Rights:<\/strong> Whether the AI-generated deepfake content infringes on Shilpa Shetty\u2019s rights to privacy, dignity, and personality.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Interim Relief:<\/strong> Whether the Court should direct takedown\/blocking of content pending final adjudication.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Role of Government and Platforms:<\/strong> Responsibility of hosting platforms and government bodies (MeitY and DoT) to prevent unlawful circulation of content.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"interim-judgment-directions\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Interim_Judgment_Directions\"><\/span>Interim Judgment \/ Directions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"protection-of-privacy-and-digital-identity\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Protection_of_Privacy_and_Digital_Identity\"><\/span>Protection of Privacy and Digital Identity<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Court recognized prima facie violation of privacy, dignity, and reputation.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Noted that personal identity cannot be reconstructed or circulated in harmful ways without consent.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"takedown-orders\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Takedown_Orders\"><\/span>Takedown Orders<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>All defendants directed to delete infringing URLs\/content immediately.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>MeitY and DoT directed to block all links and websites infringing on applicant\u2019s rights.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"substantive-issues-reserved\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Substantive_Issues_Reserved\"><\/span>Substantive Issues Reserved<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Final determination on personality rights claims and AI\/deepfake issues deferred for regular hearing.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Interim order focused solely on urgent protection.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"legal-principles-highlighted\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Legal_Principles_Highlighted\"><\/span>Legal Principles Highlighted<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"personality-rights-and-privacy\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Personality_Rights_and_Privacy\"><\/span>Personality Rights and Privacy<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Right to privacy, dignity, and reputation is constitutionally protected.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Digital selfhood and image must be safeguarded, especially for women public figures.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"ai-and-deepfakes\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"AI_and_Deepfakes\"><\/span>AI and Deepfakes<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Unauthorized creation and dissemination of AI-generated content constitutes prima facie violation of personality rights.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Courts willing to intervene promptly to prevent irreparable harm.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"contemporary-significance\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Contemporary_Significance\"><\/span>Contemporary Significance<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Demonstrates India\u2019s judiciary responding to modern digital threats.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Reinforces legal accountability for AI misuse, deepfakes, and online harassment.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Highlights growing importance of interim reliefs to safeguard reputation and privacy in the digital age.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"impact-on-society\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Impact_on_Society\"><\/span>Impact on Society<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The rise of artificial intelligence has transformed everyday life, but it also poses significant risks to society when misused. AI-driven decisions in healthcare, finance, law enforcement, and social media can cause harm, including privacy violations, financial fraud, wrongful arrests, or dissemination of fake content. The inability to hold AI itself accountable shifts responsibility to developers, operators, and corporations, creating legal and ethical dilemmas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This uncertainty can erode public trust in technology, hinder adoption, and increase social anxiety. Clear legal frameworks and accountability mechanisms are essential to balance innovation with societal protection.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"conclusion\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion\"><\/span>Conclusion<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Artificial intelligence is reshaping society, offering unprecedented efficiency and innovation, yet it simultaneously challenges traditional concepts of criminal liability. Since AI lacks consciousness and intent, existing criminal law cannot directly punish AI systems. Consequently, responsibility falls on human actors, including developers, operators, and corporations, highlighting gaps in current legal frameworks.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Indian laws, such as the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, and the Information Technology Act, 2000, are being applied to address AI-related harm, but these provisions are often inadequate to fully capture the complexities of autonomous decision-making. International examples, such as self-driving car accidents, demonstrate the global struggle to assign liability appropriately.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To safeguard society and foster responsible AI development, there is an urgent need for comprehensive legislation, clear regulatory guidelines, and ethical standards that ensure accountability without stifling innovation. Establishing these frameworks will protect public safety, uphold justice, and promote trust in AI technologies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"References\"><\/span>References<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Source: Indian Kanoon \u2013 https:\/\/share.google\/GWGCRSoqxCTg0C2vS<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Source: Indian Kanoon \u2013 https:\/\/share.google\/MvEGTgY4i19JDpauL<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Source: Indian Kanoon \u2013 https:\/\/share.google\/UPpp5QEak3Bt2fypB<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Written By: A.Kherin Trufina<\/strong><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Introduction Artificial intelligence has rapidly transformed various sectors, including healthcare, transportation, finance, and law enforcement. While AI systems enhance efficiency and decision-making, their increasing autonomy raises serious concerns when criminal harm occurs. Traditional criminal law is based on human conduct and intent, making it difficult to attribute liability to artificial intelligence. This research paper examines<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":680,"featured_media":13630,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_topic_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_reply_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"two_page_speed":[],"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"_joinchat":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[15],"tags":[28],"class_list":{"0":"post-13606","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-criminal-law","8":"tag-top-news"},"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/criminal-liability-ai-india-lsi.webp","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13606","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/680"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=13606"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13606\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/13630"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=13606"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=13606"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=13606"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}