{"id":26372,"date":"2026-06-19T03:49:42","date_gmt":"2026-06-19T03:49:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/?p=26372"},"modified":"2026-06-19T03:56:21","modified_gmt":"2026-06-19T03:56:21","slug":"tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/","title":{"rendered":"Tofan Singh v State of Tamil Nadu: How the Supreme Court Recalibrated NDPS Confession Law and Constitutional Rights"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 id=\"h-background-constitutional-amp-jurisprudential-context\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Background_Constitutional_Jurisprudential_Context\"><\/span>Background: Constitutional &amp; Jurisprudential Context<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThe decision in <em>Tofan Singh v State of Tamil Nadu<\/em><sup>[2]<\/sup> is a crucial point in the Indian criminal system, located at the intersection of the broad principles of evidence law, the procedures of investigation, and the fundamental protection granted by the constitution. The present matter originates from the filing of charges under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS Act), a law well known for its harsh penal provisions, such as severe mandatory punishments, reversal of burden of proof clauses, and harsher bail provisions.\n<\/p><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_85 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Background_Constitutional_Jurisprudential_Context\" >Background: Constitutional &amp; Jurisprudential Context<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Facts_of_the_Case\" >Facts of the Case<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Procedural_History\" >Procedural History<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Constitutional_Protection_Against_Self-Incrimination\" >Constitutional Protection Against Self-Incrimination<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Section_67_NDPS_Act_and_Confessional_Statements\" >Section 67 NDPS Act and Confessional Statements<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-4' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Key_Judicial_Approach_Before_Tofan_Singh\" >Key Judicial Approach Before Tofan Singh<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Constitution_Bench_Reference\" >Constitution Bench Reference<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Key_Issues_Emerging_from_the_Case\" >Key Issues Emerging from the Case<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Issues_for_Determination\" >Issues for Determination<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Submissions_of_the_Parties\" >Submissions of the Parties<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#A_Submissions_on_Behalf_of_the_Appellant\" >(A) Submissions on Behalf of the Appellant<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#B_Submissions_on_Behalf_of_the_Respondent_StateNCB\" >(B) Submissions on Behalf of the Respondent (State\/NCB)<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Judicial_Reasoning_and_Critical_Evaluation\" >Judicial Reasoning and Critical Evaluation<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Functional_Test_and_Police_Officer_Classification\" >Functional Test and Police Officer Classification<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Interpretation_of_Section_67\" >Interpretation of Section 67<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-16\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Constitutional_Dimensions_Under_Article_203\" >Constitutional Dimensions Under Article 20(3)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-17\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Retracted_Confessions_and_Corroboration\" >Retracted Confessions and Corroboration<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-18\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Overruling_Raj_Kumar_Karwal_and_Kanhaiyalal\" >Overruling Raj Kumar Karwal and Kanhaiyalal<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-19\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Relationship_with_Earlier_Precedents\" >Relationship with Earlier Precedents<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-20\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Systemic_Abuse_of_Section_67\" >Systemic Abuse of Section 67<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-21\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Justice_Indira_Banerjees_Dissent\" >Justice Indira Banerjee&#8217;s Dissent<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-22\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Practical_Impact_of_Tofan_Singh\" >Practical Impact of Tofan Singh<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-23\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Assessing_the_Legacy_and_Future_Trajectory\" >Assessing the Legacy and Future Trajectory<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-24\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Key_Contributions_of_the_Decision\" >Key Contributions of the Decision<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-25\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Limitations_and_Unresolved_Issues\" >Limitations and Unresolved Issues<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-26\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Long-Term_Significance_and_Comparative_Perspective\" >Long-Term Significance and Comparative Perspective<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-27\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/tofan-singh-ndps-confession-law-constitutional-rights\/#Key_Takeaways\" >Key Takeaways<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nAmidst this stricter legal regime, the appellant, Tofan Singh, was considered Accused No. 3 in an alleged narcotics trafficking case wherein the heroin amounting to 5.250 kilograms was trafficked from Rajasthan to Chennai, which will be further planned to export to Sri Lanka. The drugs were seized after the officers of the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) intercepted the operation. Four accused, including the appellant, were arrested; two others were not found, after which the appellant was arrested and his statement was recorded under Section 67 of the NDPS Act.<sup>[3]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-facts-of-the-case\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Facts_of_the_Case\"><\/span>Facts of the Case<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nIn the course of the investigation, the appellant made a statement allegedly admitting his involvement in the offence. Eventually, this statement gained a huge evidential weight and thus, it was the main ground for conviction before the Special Court, Chennai. Accordingly, all four present accused were sentenced to 10 years of rigorous imprisonment and a fine of Rs 1 lakh.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nDespite its later retraction on the ground of coercion, the trial court placed substantial reliance on the statement to convict the accused, a finding that was upheld by the Madras High Court on appeal. The matter thus came before the Supreme Court through a special leave petition, bringing into focus a persistent yet unresolved issue within NDPS jurisprudence\u2014namely, the evidentiary value of statements recorded under Section 67 and the legal status of officers empowered under the Act.<sup>[4]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-procedural-history\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Procedural_History\"><\/span>Procedural History<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Stage<\/th><th>Development<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Investigation<\/td><td>Statement of the appellant recorded under Section 67 of the NDPS Act.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Special Court, Chennai<\/td><td>Relied heavily on the statement and convicted the accused.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Madras High Court<\/td><td>Upheld the conviction on appeal.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Supreme Court<\/td><td>Issue reached the Court through a special leave petition.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-constitutional-protection-against-self-incrimination\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Constitutional_Protection_Against_Self-Incrimination\"><\/span>Constitutional Protection Against Self-Incrimination<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThe dispute must be understood within the wider constitutional guarantee against self-incrimination under Article 20(3) of the Constitution, which has been expansively interpreted beyond the extend of trial stage to include the investigative process.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nIn the case of <em>M.P. Sharma v. Satish Chandra<\/em><sup>[5]<\/sup> and <em>Nandini Satpathy v. P.L. Dani<\/em>,<sup>[6]<\/sup> the Supreme Court pointed out that testimonial compulsion is not restricted to in-court statements only but also includes disclosures made during police interrogation, thereby recognizing the coercive nature of custodial settings.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nBesides this constitutional safeguard, Sections 24\u201327 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, also lay down strict rules regarding when can confessional statements, especially those made to police officers, be admitted as evidence, reflecting the courts&#8217; longstanding distrust of confessions made in custody.<sup>[7]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-section-67-ndps-act-and-confessional-statements\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Section_67_NDPS_Act_and_Confessional_Statements\"><\/span>Section 67 NDPS Act and Confessional Statements<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nAgainst this backdrop, Section 67 of the NDPS Act which, on the face of it, is just a provision enabling officers, power to &#8220;call for information&#8221;, unexpectedly took on a much broader role and in reality, it was used as an instrument of recording confessional statements.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThis change in interpretation almost erased the distinctive line between police investigation and process of evidence gathering, resulting in the emergence of a series of rulings that gave priority to law enforcement goals over the procedural safeguards granted to individuals.<sup>[8]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 id=\"h-key-judicial-approach-before-tofan-singh\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Judicial_Approach_Before_Tofan_Singh\"><\/span>Key Judicial Approach Before Tofan Singh<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><em>Raj Kumar Karwal v. Union of India<\/em><sup>[9]<\/sup><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Kanhaiyalal v. Union of India<\/em><sup>[10]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nJudgements like <em>Raj Kumar Karwal v. Union of India<\/em><sup>[9]<\/sup> and <em>Kanhaiyalal v. Union of India<\/em><sup>[10]<\/sup> demonstrate this approach, basing the admissibility of such statements mainly on the formal distinction between NDPS officers and police officers.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-constitution-bench-reference\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Constitution_Bench_Reference\"><\/span>Constitution Bench Reference<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThis doctrinal conflict that arose between the constitutional protections, exclusion of evidence, and the stringent criminal enforcement requirements is what finally resulted in the <em>Tofan Singh<\/em> case being referred to a Constitution Bench for a review of the legal framework relating to confessional evidence under special penal statutes.<sup>[11]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-key-issues-emerging-from-the-case\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Issues_Emerging_from_the_Case\"><\/span>Key Issues Emerging from the Case<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The evidentiary value of statements recorded under Section 67 of the NDPS Act.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The legal status of officers empowered under the NDPS Act.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The scope of Article 20(3) protection against self-incrimination.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The admissibility of confessional statements under the Indian Evidence Act, 1872.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The balance between stringent narcotics enforcement and procedural safeguards.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-issues-for-determination\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Issues_for_Determination\"><\/span>Issues for Determination<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Following legal concerns raised in the case:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Whether officers empowered under Section 53 of the NDPS Act can be regarded as \u201cpolice officers\u201d under Section 25 of the Indian Evidence Act, and consequently, whether statements recorded under Section 67 can be treated as admissible confessions or only as investigative statements akin to Section 161 CrPC.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Whether a retracted confession, in the absence of reliable independent corroboration, can legally sustain a conviction.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Whether the procedural framework under the NDPS Act was violated, particularly by the same officer performing seizure and investigation (Sections 42, 53, 52(3)) and by non-compliance with Section 57 regarding reporting requirements.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Whether the overall interpretation and application of the NDPS Act maintains a proper balance between effective enforcement of drug laws and the protection of constitutional rights of the accused.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-submissions-of-the-parties\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Submissions_of_the_Parties\"><\/span>Submissions of the Parties<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThe core issue before the Court is to determine the evidentiary value of statements recorded under Section 67 of the NDPS Act, 1985 and about the legal character of officers and their powers under the Act.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-a-submissions-on-behalf-of-the-appellant\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"A_Submissions_on_Behalf_of_the_Appellant\"><\/span>(A) Submissions on Behalf of the Appellant<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThe appellants contested the core legitimacy of their conviction on several grounds, mainly doubting the evidentiary weigh of their statements made under Section 67 of the NDPS Act, 1985 and also the procedural discrepancies in the investigation. Their submissions may be summarised as follows:\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Issue Raised<\/th><th>Appellant&#8217;s Submission<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Section 67 Statements<\/td><td>The conviction mainly relied on Section 67 statements, which cannot be treated as valid confessions since NDPS officers exercise powers similar to police officers under Sections 42 and 53 of the NDPS such as investigation, search, seizure, and initiation of prosecution; hence such confessions are barred under Section 25 of the Indian Evidence Act.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Nature of Section 67<\/td><td>Section 67 only permits collection of information and does not authorise recording of confessions; such statements are akin to those under Section 161 CrPC and cannot be used as substantive evidence.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Procedural Safeguards<\/td><td>Given the stringent nature of the NDPS Act, procedural safeguards must be strictly applied; allowing such confessions would bypass protections under Sections 24\u201326 of the Evidence Act and Article 20(3) against self-incrimination.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Retracted Confession<\/td><td>The speculative confessions were subsequently denied, and in absence of independent corroboration, a retracted confession alone cannot support a conviction, thereby making conviction questionable.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Investigation by Same Officer<\/td><td>The same officer acted as both arresting and investigating authority, contrary to Section 52(3), thereby compromising fairness and impartiality of the investigation.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Section 57 Compliance<\/td><td>There was non-compliance with Section 57, as proper reporting of arrest and seizure to a superior officer was not followed, affecting the validity of the investigation.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Recovery of Evidence<\/td><td>No significant incriminating evidence was recovered from the appellant; the contraband was found with co-accused, weakening the claim of conscious possession and involvement.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-b-submissions-on-behalf-of-the-respondent-state-ncb\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"B_Submissions_on_Behalf_of_the_Respondent_StateNCB\"><\/span>(B) Submissions on Behalf of the Respondent (State\/NCB)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThe respondents defended the validity of the conviction and the admissibility of statements recorded under Section 67 of the NDPS Act, 1985, advancing the following submissions:\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Issue Raised<\/th><th>Respondent&#8217;s Submission<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Status of NDPS Officers<\/td><td>NDPS officers are not \u201cpolice officers\u201d under Section 25 of the Indian Evidence Act, as they lack key powers like filing a charge-sheet under Section 173 CrPC; hence confessions made to them are admissible.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Judicial Precedents<\/td><td>Reliance was placed on Raj Kumar Karwal[12] and Kanhaiyalal,[13] which held that NDPS officers are not police officers and that Section 67 confessions are valid; these precedents should continue to apply.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Scope of Section 67<\/td><td>Section 67 is a broad provision allowing officers to examine persons acquainted with the case, which includes recording statements, even confessions, if made voluntarily; such statements are admissible under Section 24 of the Evidence Act.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Purpose of the NDPS Act<\/td><td>The NDPS Act is a complete code that balances strict enforcement with safeguards; given the seriousness of drug offences, authorities must have adequate powers to investigate effectively.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Role of Investigating Officer<\/td><td>The statute does not bar the same officer from conducting search, seizure, and investigation; such overlapping roles are permitted and do not invalidate the process.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Corroborative Evidence<\/td><td>The prosecution case was reinforced by corroborative evidence such as statements of co-accused, recovery details, identity documents, and travel records, thus significantly enhancing the reliability of the appellant&#8217;s statement.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-judicial-reasoning-and-critical-evaluation\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Judicial_Reasoning_and_Critical_Evaluation\"><\/span>Judicial Reasoning and Critical Evaluation<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThe Larger Bench of the Supreme Court in <em>Tofan Singh<\/em><sup>[14]<\/sup> resolved the long-standing controversy by holding that officers empowered under the NDPS Act, 1985 are \u201cpolice officers\u201d within the meaning of Section 25 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, and consequently, any confessional statement recorded by them under Section 67 of the NDPS Act is inadmissible in evidence.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nBy taking this route, the Court discarded the previous formalistic differentiation based on the designation of officers and instead introduced a functional test which is predicated on the characteristics of the powers being exercised, in particular, the power of investigation. This method, on one hand, is normatively convincing and adheres to a substance-over-form interpretation of law but on the other hand, it is not completely unheard of. For instance, cases <em>Barkat Ram<\/em><sup>[15]<\/sup> and <em>Raja Ram Jaiswal<\/em><sup>[16]<\/sup> were the previous instances of this functional approach. Hence, the decision seems to be more of reviving the established principle rather than coming up with something new at all and this has resulted in the question being raised about whether the exclusion of <em>Raj Kumar Karwal<\/em> and <em>Kanhaiyalal<\/em> is sufficiently reasoned and justified.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-functional-test-and-police-officer-classification\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Functional_Test_and_Police_Officer_Classification\"><\/span>Functional Test and Police Officer Classification<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nCourt observed that officers empowered under Section 53 of the NDPS Act are vested with powers akin to those of an officer-in-charge of a police station, including the authority to investigate offences, collect evidence, and initiate prosecution. In substance, therefore, such officers perform the same functions as police officers, and must be treated as such for the purposes of evidentiary exclusion.<sup>[17]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nNevertheless, even though admitting this functional similarity, the Court does not however investigate its greater institutional ramifications. It does not sufficiently engage with this reclassification&#8217;s effects on the structures of investigation, the mechanisms of accountability, or the safeguards of the procedure that is why it inadvertently leaves a major part of its rationale unexplored.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Aspect<\/th><th>Court&#8217;s Position<\/th><th>Critical Observation<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Nature of NDPS Officers<\/td><td>Functionally equivalent to police officers<\/td><td>Institutional consequences not fully examined<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Investigative Powers<\/td><td>Comparable to police investigation powers<\/td><td>Accountability mechanisms remain unexplored<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Evidentiary Consequences<\/td><td>Confessions become inadmissible<\/td><td>Practical implementation concerns remain<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-interpretation-of-section-67\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Interpretation_of_Section_67\"><\/span>Interpretation of Section 67<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nIn interpreting Section 67, the Court ruled that the provision only allows for the collection of information and therefore, does not permit recording of the confessions. This essentially brought back the distinction between investigative questioning and evidential use of the confessions.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThis major clarification is a strong point of the verdict as it checks the misuse of Section 67 that has been going on for a long time as a tool to get convictions. However, the Court hasn&#8217;t really explained how this understanding of the section will work practically, especially with regard to derivative evidence or disclosures which are only partially admissible. The present decision, unlike the earlier case law which clarified such issues, is leaving these problems unresolved, thereby creating uncertainty for the trial courts.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-constitutional-dimensions-under-article-20-3\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Constitutional_Dimensions_Under_Article_203\"><\/span>Constitutional Dimensions Under Article 20(3)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nFurther, the Court based its argument on Article 20(3), reiterating that the right to remain silent is applicable even at the stage of investigation and is aimed at protecting the accused persons from being forced to give testimony.<sup>[18]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThis focus on the constitutional aspect is praiseworthy but the discussion is in fact limited to some extent. In view of the harsh measures under the NDPS Act, such as reverse burden provisions and the imposition of heavy penalties, a more thorough incorporation of the due process concerns under Article 21 would have made the judgment even stronger and would have provided a more complete constitutional framework.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-retracted-confessions-and-corroboration\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Retracted_Confessions_and_Corroboration\"><\/span>Retracted Confessions and Corroboration<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nBesides that, the Court rightly pointed out once more that a retracted confession cannot be the only evidence to convict a person unless there is independent corroboration. The judgment though as far as the principle goes, does not detail what the standard or nature of corroboration is. This has left practically the lower courts that will need to deal with the application of the ruling in complicated evidence situations quite uncertain.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-overruling-raj-kumar-karwal-and-kanhaiyalal\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Overruling_Raj_Kumar_Karwal_and_Kanhaiyalal\"><\/span>Overruling Raj Kumar Karwal and Kanhaiyalal<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nBy overruling <em>Raj Kumar Karwal<\/em><sup>[19]<\/sup> and <em>Kanhaiyalal<\/em><sup>[20]<\/sup>, the Court decided to amend a discrepancy in the long-standing doctrine. However, their argument for the same is less than adequate. In fact, a detailed rebuttal of the previous decisions and an explanation of their consequences would have contributed a lot to doctrinal clarity and stability, especially in the context of the very sensitive criminal law.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-relationship-with-earlier-precedents\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Relationship_with_Earlier_Precedents\"><\/span>Relationship with Earlier Precedents<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThe judgment align with the previous decision of <em>Noor Aga v. State of Punjab<\/em><sup>[21]<\/sup> that strict penal laws require stricter procedural safeguards. And yet, the Court is silent on the matter of concrete safeguards in future investigations to which it could have extended this line of reasoning.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nIn the same vein, though the judgment agrees with the concerns voiced in <em>D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal<\/em><sup>[22]<\/sup> about possible custodial coercion, it does not prescribe a set of rules that would prevent such abuse.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-systemic-abuse-of-section-67\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Systemic_Abuse_of_Section_67\"><\/span>Systemic Abuse of Section 67<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nA more significant limitation is that the Court does not even try to tackle the systemic abuse of Section 67. Though it noted the doctrinal inconsistency, the Court has silently turned a blind eye on the fact that potentially coercive confessions have been used extensively in NDPS trials. And since the Court has addressed this matter mostly at the doctrinal level, it is able to dodge the question of the fundamental structural imbalance that characterizes the NDPS system.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThis flaw is further highlighted by the fact that the Court has, to a large extent, overlooked the overall severity of the NDPS framework, including the reverse burden provisions and very harsh sentencing. As it has merely focused on exclusion of evidence, the judgment hardly touches upon the bigger disorder in the system.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-justice-indira-banerjee-s-dissent\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Justice_Indira_Banerjees_Dissent\"><\/span>Justice Indira Banerjee&#8217;s Dissent<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nJustice Indira Banerjee&#8217;s dissent voices a very crucial counter-argument that NDPS officers do not possess the full attributes of police officers and therefore confessions under Section 67 should be admissible. She lays emphasis on the delicate balance that must be maintained between safeguarding individual rights and fulfilling the societal goal of fighting drug-related crimes.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThis is a point of tension that the majority, it can be said, have overlooked especially with regard to serious economic and narcotics crimes.<sup>[23]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-practical-impact-of-tofan-singh\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Practical_Impact_of_Tofan_Singh\"><\/span>Practical Impact of Tofan Singh<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nFinally, subsequent cases like <em>NCB v. Pallulabid Ahmad Arimutta<\/em>, reveal that the real world effect of <em>Tofan Singh<\/em> might actually be very limited. The court decision excluding confessions as evidence will enhance constitutional protections. However, rulings thereafter show that judges may still rely on surrounding circumstances, thereby preserving prosecutorial effectiveness.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThis results in a conflict in the NDPS law, where major improvements to the rights of the individual are somewhat counterbalanced by practical considerations in the law enforcement.<sup>[24]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-assessing-the-legacy-and-future-trajectory\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Assessing_the_Legacy_and_Future_Trajectory\"><\/span>Assessing the Legacy and Future Trajectory<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nThe decision has made three major contributions:\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>It recognizes NDPS officers as functionally equivalent to police officers,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It curbs the misuse of Section 67 confessions, and<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It strengthens the protection against self-incrimination in strict statutory regimes.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-key-contributions-of-the-decision\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Contributions_of_the_Decision\"><\/span>Key Contributions of the Decision<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Contribution<\/th><th>Significance<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Recognition of NDPS Officers as Police Officers<\/td><td>Applies evidentiary safeguards under Section 25 of the Evidence Act<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Restriction on Section 67 Confessions<\/td><td>Reduces the possibility of convictions based solely on confessional statements<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Protection Against Self-Incrimination<\/td><td>Strengthens constitutional guarantees under Article 20(3)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-limitations-and-unresolved-issues\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Limitations_and_Unresolved_Issues\"><\/span>Limitations and Unresolved Issues<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Lack of detailed procedural guidelines for future investigations.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Failure to address systemic coercive practices comprehensively.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Uncertainty regarding derivative evidence and partial disclosures.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Limited discussion on Article 21 due process concerns.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Insufficient clarification regarding standards of corroboration.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nIt also points out the necessity for legislative changes to make the regulation of investigative powers more effective. On the one hand, it settles main issues but, on the other hand, it refrains from giving detailed guidelines and neglect in addressing systemic coercive practices entirely thus limiting its potential to bring about radical change.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-long-term-significance-and-comparative-perspective\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Long-Term_Significance_and_Comparative_Perspective\"><\/span>Long-Term Significance and Comparative Perspective<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nIn the end, its importance is found in both providing a clear legal framework and having a practical impact. Even though it might create difficulties for law enforcement, it is the right decision to say that we cannot do away with the concept of liberty in any way.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\nAt the same time, the question of how significantly it changes the practices at the investigation and trial levels will determine its long-term effects. On a comparative note while in a way, the US applies the exclusion of confessions obtained in police custody, through the safeguards and the underlying concept of the Fifth Amendment and the Miranda rules, the Indian viewpoint, though upgraded, still does not have clear procedures and mechanisms for effective enforcement.\n<b>End-Notes:<\/b><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Tofan Singh v. State of Tamil Nadu, AIR 2020 SC 5592<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Id.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Id.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Id.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>M.P. Sharma v. Satish Chandra, 1954 SCR 1077<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Nandini Satpathy v. P.L. Dani, (1978) 2 SCC 424.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Tofan Singh, supra note 1<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Id.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Raj Kumar Karwal v. Union of India, (1990) 2 SCC 409<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Kanhaiyalal v. Union of India, (2008) 4 SCC 668.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Tofan Singh, supra note 1<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Raj Kumar, supra note 9<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Kanhaiyalal, supra note 10<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Tofan Singh, supra note 1<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>State of Punjab v. Barkat Ram, AIR 1962 SC 276.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Raja Ram Jaiswal v. State of Bihar, AIR 1964 SC 828.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Tofan Singh, supra note 1<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Selvi v. State of Karnataka, (2010) 7 SCC 263.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Raj Kumar Karwal, supra note 9<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Kanhaiyalal, supra note 10<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Noor Aga v. State of Punjab, (2008) 16 SCC 417<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal, (1997) 1 SCC 416.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Tofan Singh, supra note 1 (Banerjee, J., dissenting).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Narcotics Control Bureau v. Pallulabid Ahmad Arimutta, SCC OnLine SC (2022).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-yoast-seo-related-links yoast-seo-related-links\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/bail-under-ndps-act-1985\/\">Bail under NDPS Act, 1985<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ndps-act-1985-drug-laws-bail-punishment-india\/\">NDPS Act 1985 Explained: Drug Laws, Bail Rules, Punishments &amp; Legal Safeguards in India<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/procedural-errors-in-ndps-cases-when-minor-lapses-dont-vitiate-conviction\/\">Procedural Errors in NDPS Cases: When Minor Lapses Don&#8217;t Vitiate Conviction<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/supreme-court-denies-bail-ndps-accused-criminal-history-age-illness-trial-delay\/\">Supreme Court Denies Bail to 60-Year-Old NDPS Accused: Why Criminal History Outweighed Age, Illness and Trial Delay<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/section-50-ndps-act-violation-illegal-search-police-officer\/\">NDPS Act Section 50 Violation: Illegal Search Before Police Officer Vitiates Trial &amp; Acquittal<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-yoast-seo-ai-summarize yoast-ai-summarize\"><h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Takeaways\"><\/span>Key Takeaways<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list yoast-ai-summarize-list\">\n<li>The Supreme Court&#8217;s decision in Tofan Singh v State of Tamil Nadu addresses crucial issues related to the NDPS Act and the evidentiary value of confessions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Court ruled that NDPS officers are considered police officers under the Indian Evidence Act, making confessions under Section 67 inadmissible.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Confessional statements made under coercion cannot support convictions without independent corroborative evidence, strengthening protections against self-incrimination.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Key unresolved issues include the systemic abuse of Section 67 and the lack of detailed procedural guidelines for future investigations.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Justice Indira Banerjee&#8217;s dissent emphasizes the balance between individual rights and the need to combat drug-related crimes, an aspect the majority opinion seems to overlook.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Background: Constitutional &amp; Jurisprudential Context The decision in Tofan Singh v State of Tamil Nadu[2] is a crucial point in the Indian criminal system, located at the intersection of the broad principles of evidence law, the procedures of investigation, and the fundamental protection granted by the constitution. The present matter originates from the filing of<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1608,"featured_media":26371,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_topic_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_reply_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"two_page_speed":[],"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"_joinchat":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[15],"tags":[4798,28],"class_list":["post-26372","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-criminal-law","tag-criminal-law","tag-top-news"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v27.7 (Yoast SEO v27.8) - 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