{"id":29414,"date":"2026-08-06T12:59:47","date_gmt":"2026-08-06T12:59:47","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/?p=29414"},"modified":"2026-08-06T13:05:59","modified_gmt":"2026-08-06T13:05:59","slug":"the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/","title":{"rendered":"The Erosion of Due Process: How BNSS Remands, UAPA Schisms, and the DPDP Act Test the Elasticity of Article 21."},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 id=\"h-abstract\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Abstract\"><\/span>Abstract<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The traditional boundaries of <strong>constitutional due process<\/strong> in India are undergoing a profound structural realignment. While <strong>Article 21<\/strong> has historically expanded to safeguard individual liberty against arbitrary state action, a triad of contemporary legislative shifts threatens to test its systemic elasticity.<\/p><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_86 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Abstract\" >Abstract<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Introduction\" >Introduction<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Article_21_Expanding_Scope_of_Fundamental_Rights\" >Article 21: Expanding Scope of Fundamental Rights<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Constitutional_Framework_Discussed\" >Constitutional Framework Discussed<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Key_Themes_of_the_Discussion\" >Key Themes of the Discussion<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#From_Textualism_to_Purposive_Interpretation_The_Historical_Evolution\" >From Textualism to Purposive Interpretation: The Historical Evolution<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Timeline_of_the_Evolution_of_Article_21\" >Timeline of the Evolution of Article 21<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_Era_of_Parliamentary_Sovereignty_K_Gopalan_v_State_of_Madras_19503\" >The Era of Parliamentary Sovereignty: K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950)3<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_Black_Phase_ADM_Jabalpur_v_Shivkant_Shukla_19764\" >The Black Phase: ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla (1976)4<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_Shift_from_%E2%80%98Procedure_to_%E2%80%98Due_Process_Maneka_Gandhi_v_Union_of_India_19785\" >The Shift from \u2018Procedure\u2019 to \u2018Due Process\u2019: Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978)5<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Major_Principles_Established_by_Maneka_Gandhi\" >Major Principles Established by Maneka Gandhi<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Redefining_%E2%80%98Life_and_%E2%80%98Personal_Liberty\" >Redefining \u2018Life\u2019 and \u2018Personal Liberty\u2019<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_Right_to_Privacy_KS_Puttaswamy_v_Union_of_India_20176\" >The Right to Privacy: K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017)6<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Privacy_Principles_Established_by_the_2017_Judgement\" >Privacy Principles Established by the 2017 Judgement<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Key_Principles_Emerging_from_Puttaswamy\" >Key Principles Emerging from Puttaswamy<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-16\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Decriminalisation_of_Consensual_Same-Sex_Relations_Navtej_Singh_Johar_v_Union_of_India_20188\" >Decriminalisation of Consensual Same-Sex Relations: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018)8<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-17\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Constitutional_Significance_of_the_Judgement\" >Constitutional Significance of the Judgement<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-18\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Environmental_Jurisprudence_and_Socio-Economic_Rights\" >Environmental Jurisprudence and Socio-Economic Rights<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-19\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Major_Rights_Developed_Under_Article_21\" >Major Rights Developed Under Article 21<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-20\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Clean_Environment\" >Clean Environment<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-21\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Right_to_Education\" >Right to Education<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-22\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Right_to_Livelihood\" >Right to Livelihood<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-23\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Modern_Challenges_The_Contemporary_Battleground_2024%E2%80%932026\" >Modern Challenges: The Contemporary Battleground (2024\u20132026)<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-24\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_Judicial_Pushback_Against_%E2%80%98Bulldozer_Justice\" >The Judicial Pushback Against \u2018Bulldozer Justice\u2019<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-25\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Supreme_Court_Strengthens_Enforcement_in_2026\" >Supreme Court Strengthens Enforcement in 2026<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-26\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Article_21_and_Due_Process_Concerns\" >Article 21 and Due Process Concerns<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-27\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Key_Supreme_Court_Developments\" >Key Supreme Court Developments<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-28\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Key_Takeaways\" >Key Takeaways<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-29\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_Polyvocal_Court_The_Deepening_Doctrinal_Chasm_on_UAPA_Bail\" >The Polyvocal Court: The Deepening Doctrinal Chasm on UAPA Bail<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-30\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#First_Judicial_Approach_National_Security_and_Restrictive_UAPA_Bail\" >First Judicial Approach: National Security and Restrictive UAPA Bail<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-31\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Key_Principles_from_the_Restrictive_Approach\" >Key Principles from the Restrictive Approach<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-32\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Second_Judicial_Approach_Constitutional_Supremacy_Over_Statutory_Barriers\" >Second Judicial Approach: Constitutional Supremacy Over Statutory Barriers<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-33\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Constitutional_Principles_Highlighted_by_the_Andrabi_Ruling\" >Constitutional Principles Highlighted by the Andrabi Ruling<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-34\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Special_Statutes_and_the_Erosion_of_Due_Process\" >Special Statutes and the Erosion of Due Process<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-35\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#PMLA_Judgement_and_Revival_of_Twin_Conditions_for_Bail\" >PMLA Judgement and Revival of Twin Conditions for Bail<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-36\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#UAPA_Bail_Restraints_and_Article_21\" >UAPA Bail Restraints and Article 21<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-37\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Comparison_of_Judicial_Approaches_Under_Special_Statutes\" >Comparison of Judicial Approaches Under Special Statutes<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-38\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Reverse_Burden_Clauses_Under_Special_Statutes\" >Reverse Burden Clauses Under Special Statutes<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-39\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Major_Legislations_Containing_Reverse_Burden_Provisions\" >Major Legislations Containing Reverse Burden Provisions<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-40\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Key_Reverse_Burden_Provisions_Under_the_Companies_Act_2013\" >Key Reverse Burden Provisions Under the Companies Act, 2013<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-41\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Section_447_%E2%80%94_Punishment_for_Fraud22\" >Section 447 \u2014 Punishment for Fraud22<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-42\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Sections_34_35_%E2%80%94_Criminal_and_Civil_Liability_for_Misstatements_in_Prospectus23\" >Sections 34 &amp; 35 \u2014 Criminal and Civil Liability for Misstatements in Prospectus23<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-43\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Sections_448_449_%E2%80%94_False_Statements_and_False_Evidence24\" >Sections 448 &amp; 449 \u2014 False Statements and False Evidence24<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-44\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Section_260_%E2%80%94_Officer_Who_Is_in_Default25\" >Section 2(60) \u2014 Officer Who Is in Default25<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-45\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Why_the_Legislature_Uses_Reverse_Onus_in_Company_Laws\" >Why the Legislature Uses Reverse Onus in Company Laws?<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-46\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_Foundational_Justification\" >The Foundational Justification<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-47\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Constitutional_Conflict_Between_Reverse_Burden_Clauses_and_Article_21\" >Constitutional Conflict Between Reverse Burden Clauses and Article 21<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-48\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Dilution_of_the_%E2%80%98Presumption_of_Innocence\" >Dilution of the &#8216;Presumption of Innocence&#8217;<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-49\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_Risk_of_Wrongful_Convictions_%E2%80%98Inequality_of_Arms\" >The Risk of Wrongful Convictions &amp; &#8216;Inequality of Arms&#8217;<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-50\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Indirect_Violation_of_Article_203_Self-Incrimination\" >Indirect Violation of Article 20(3) (Self-Incrimination)<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-51\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#How_the_Supreme_Court_Justifies_and_Restricts_Reverse_Onus\" >How the Supreme Court Justifies and Restricts Reverse Onus?<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-52\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_New_Frontier_Intersecting_Article_21_with_BNSS_Frameworks\" >The New Frontier: Intersecting Article 21 with BNSS Frameworks<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-53\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Section_187_BNSS_The_Dilemma_Between_Police_Remand_and_Personal_Liberty\" >Section 187 BNSS: The Dilemma Between Police Remand and Personal Liberty<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-54\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Key_Issues_Raised_Under_Section_187_BNSS\" >Key Issues Raised Under Section 187 BNSS<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-55\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Section_479_BNSS_Progression_or_Regression_for_Undertrials\" >Section 479 BNSS: Progression or Regression for Undertrials?<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-56\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Major_Features_of_Section_479_BNSS\" >Major Features of Section 479 BNSS<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-57\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Informational_Privacy_in_the_AI_Era_Article_21_and_the_DPDP_Act\" >Informational Privacy in the AI Era: Article 21 and the DPDP Act<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-58\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_State_Exemption_Hole_vs_The_Puttaswamy_Standard\" >The State Exemption Hole vs. The Puttaswamy Standard<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-59\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Judicial_Approach_to_Procedural_Compliance_and_Privacy\" >Judicial Approach to Procedural Compliance and Privacy<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-60\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Key_Constitutional_Concerns_Under_the_DPDP_Act\" >Key Constitutional Concerns Under the DPDP Act<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-61\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#The_Evisceration_of_Public_Accountability_Defanging_the_RTI_Act\" >The Evisceration of Public Accountability: Defanging the RTI Act<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-62\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Impact_of_Section_44_on_the_RTI_Act\" >Impact of Section 44 on the RTI Act<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-63\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Constitutional_Issues_at_a_Glance\" >Constitutional Issues at a Glance<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-64\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Conclusion_The_Perpetual_Sentinel\" >Conclusion: The Perpetual Sentinel<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-65\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Judicial_Review_as_the_Guardian_of_Article_21\" >Judicial Review as the Guardian of Article 21<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-66\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-erosion-of-due-process-how-bnss-remands-uapa-schisms-and-the-dpdp-act-test-the-elasticity-of-article-21\/#Endnotes\" >Endnotes<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Expanded police custody limits under the <strong>Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS)<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Stringent, non-bailable detention thresholds under the <strong>Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA)<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Broad surveillance and data-access exemptions under the <strong>Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The expanded police custody limits under the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS)\u2014which supersedes the old Cr.P.C. framework\u2014significantly dilute early procedural protections, creating a dangerous continuum with the stringent, non-bailable detention thresholds of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA). Compounding this physical overreach, the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act grants the state sweeping surveillance and data-access exemptions, effectively bypassing the judicial scrutiny mandated by the <em>Puttaswamy<\/em> privacy framework.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Together, these statutory frameworks merge physical custody and digital surveillance into a unified front, posing an unprecedented challenge to the &#8220;<strong>just, fair, and reasonable<\/strong>&#8221; standard of procedural due process.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-introduction\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Introduction\"><\/span>Introduction<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Indian Constitution is not a stagnant document; it is an organic, living instrument. At its absolute core lies <strong>Article 21<\/strong>. Written in just eighteen words, this provision states:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">&#8220;No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.&#8221;<sup>1<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Despite its brevity, Article 21 has evolved into the most consequential provision of the Constitution. Through decades of creative judicial activism, the Supreme Court of India has transformed a negative injunction against state high-handedness into a vast reservoir of positive socio-economic rights. Today, it serves as the ultimate shield for individual dignity and the bedrock of Indian democracy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-article-21-expanding-scope-of-fundamental-rights\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Article_21_Expanding_Scope_of_Fundamental_Rights\"><\/span>Article 21: Expanding Scope of Fundamental Rights<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In my opinion, Article 21 very seamlessly serves one of the functions that the clutch of a motor car does, i.e., Article 21 makes the entire journey of Indian Jurisprudence, the fundamental and primary objects of the Natural Law School, and the equitable running of the society, <em>in toto<\/em> (in whole; entirely), much smoother by incorporating under its wide umbrella diverse and tectonic varieties of rights ranging from the right to life to the right to access trauma care (as held in <em>SaveLife Foundation v. Union Of India<\/em><sup>2<\/sup>) to the right to die, even the right to be forgotten and the right to sleep. Brilliant and fascinating, simultaneously.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-constitutional-framework-discussed\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Constitutional_Framework_Discussed\"><\/span>Constitutional Framework Discussed<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Constitutional \/ Statutory Framework<\/th><th>Primary Focus<\/th><th>Constitutional Concern<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Article 21<\/td><td>Life and Personal Liberty<\/td><td>Procedural Due Process<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS)<\/td><td>Expanded Police Custody<\/td><td>Reduced Procedural Safeguards<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA)<\/td><td>Stringent Detention Regime<\/td><td>Liberty Restrictions<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act<\/td><td>State Data Access &amp; Surveillance<\/td><td>Privacy and Judicial Oversight<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-key-themes-of-the-discussion\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Themes_of_the_Discussion\"><\/span>Key Themes of the Discussion<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Evolution of Article 21 jurisprudence.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Constitutional due process in India.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Expansion of police custody under BNSS.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Preventive detention under UAPA.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Digital surveillance under the DPDP Act.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Puttaswamy privacy framework.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The &#8220;just, fair, and reasonable&#8221; procedural standard.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-from-textualism-to-purposive-interpretation-the-historical-evolution\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"From_Textualism_to_Purposive_Interpretation_The_Historical_Evolution\"><\/span>From Textualism to Purposive Interpretation: The Historical Evolution<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The jurisprudential journey of Article 21 is a maestro of constitutional evolution, marked by a dramatic shift from strict textualism to expansive idealism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-timeline-of-the-evolution-of-article-21\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Timeline_of_the_Evolution_of_Article_21\"><\/span>Timeline of the Evolution of Article 21<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Period<\/th><th>Landmark Case<\/th><th>Constitutional Impact<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>1950<\/td><td><em>K. Gopalan v. State of Madras<\/em><sup>3<\/sup><\/td><td>Adopted a narrow interpretation of Article 21.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1976<\/td><td><em>ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla<\/em><sup>4<\/sup><\/td><td>Restricted judicial protection during the Emergency.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1978<\/td><td><em>Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India<\/em><sup>5<\/sup><\/td><td>Expanded Article 21 through the doctrine of just, fair, and reasonable procedure.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-the-era-of-parliamentary-sovereignty-k-gopalan-v-state-of-madras-1950-3\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Era_of_Parliamentary_Sovereignty_K_Gopalan_v_State_of_Madras_19503\"><\/span>The Era of Parliamentary Sovereignty: K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950)<sup>3<\/sup><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the infancy of the Republic, the Supreme Court adopted a narrow, literal approach.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In <em>A.K. Gopalan<\/em>, the Court looked at the draft of the Constitution and drew a sharp line between the American concept of \u2018Due Process of Law\u2019 and the Japanese and British concept (also Indian, even back then) \u2018Procedure Established by Law\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Court ruled that if a law was validly enacted by the legislature, the courts could not question its fairness, justice, or morality.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Under this restrictive view:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>\u2018Life\u2019<\/strong> meant mere physical existence.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>\u2018Personal liberty&#8217;<\/strong> meant freedom from bodily restraint.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-the-black-phase-adm-jabalpur-v-shivkant-shukla-1976-4\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Black_Phase_ADM_Jabalpur_v_Shivkant_Shukla_19764\"><\/span>The Black Phase: ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla (1976)<sup>4<\/sup><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The perils of the <em>Gopalan<\/em> approach peaked during the 1975 Emergency.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the Habeas Corpus case, a majority of the Supreme Court held that during a proclaimed Emergency, a citizen loses the <em>locus standi<\/em> (legal standing) to challenge even an arbitrary, unlawful executive detention under Article 21.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Justice H.R. Khanna famously dissented, writing that the right to life and liberty is a natural right that exists independent of the constitutional text.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">History eventually vindicated his dissent through the 44th CAA, 1978, setting the stage for a judicial renaissance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-the-shift-from-procedure-to-due-process-maneka-gandhi-v-union-of-india-1978-5\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Shift_from_%E2%80%98Procedure_to_%E2%80%98Due_Process_Maneka_Gandhi_v_Union_of_India_19785\"><\/span>The Shift from \u2018Procedure\u2019 to \u2018Due Process\u2019: Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978)<sup>5<\/sup><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The post-emergency court completely reimagined its role.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the landmark <em>Maneka Gandhi<\/em> case, the Supreme Court overturned the <em>Gopalan<\/em> philosophy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Court held that a procedure depriving a person of life or personal liberty must not just be any procedure; it must be <strong>\u2018just, fair, and reasonable\u2019<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">By doing so, the Court effectively imported the American doctrine of <strong>substantive due process<\/strong> into Article 21 and, thereby, made the Constitution the <em>suprema lex<\/em> (supreme law) of India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Court also established the <strong>\u2018Golden Triangle\u2019 Doctrine<\/strong>, ruling that Articles 14, 19, and 21 are interconnected and cannot be read in isolation, overturning <em>A.K. Gopalan<\/em>, which held that Articles 14, 19, and 21 are <strong>\u2018mutually exclusive\u2019<\/strong> or <strong>\u2018water-tight compartments\u2019<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-major-principles-established-by-maneka-gandhi\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Major_Principles_Established_by_Maneka_Gandhi\"><\/span>Major Principles Established by Maneka Gandhi<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The procedure must be just, fair, and reasonable.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Article 21 incorporates the doctrine of substantive due process.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Articles 14, 19, and 21 form the Golden Triangle.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Fundamental rights must be interpreted harmoniously rather than in isolation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-redefining-life-and-personal-liberty\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Redefining_%E2%80%98Life_and_%E2%80%98Personal_Liberty\"><\/span>Redefining \u2018Life\u2019 and \u2018Personal Liberty\u2019<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Post-1978, the Supreme Court declared that \u2018life\u2019 does not mean mere animal existence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It means living with human dignity, self-respect, and all that goes along with it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This expanded definition became an umbrella for several unremunerated rights.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-the-right-to-privacy-k-s-puttaswamy-v-union-of-india-2017-6\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Right_to_Privacy_KS_Puttaswamy_v_Union_of_India_20176\"><\/span>The Right to Privacy: K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017)<sup>6<\/sup><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In a historic 9-judge bench decision, the Supreme Court unanimously declared privacy to be a fundamental right intrinsic to Article 21, triggered by <em>Kharak Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh<\/em>. The Court ruled that privacy is an essential facet of human dignity, encompassing informational privacy, bodily autonomy, and spatial privacy. This judgement fundamentally altered the relationship between the citizen and the state in the digital age.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-privacy-principles-established-by-the-2017-judgement\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Privacy_Principles_Established_by_the_2017_Judgement\"><\/span>Privacy Principles Established by the 2017 Judgement<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This 2017 Judgment laid down specific thresholds to be satisfied in order to infringe upon the fundamental right to privacy, thereby placing reasonable restrictions on the right.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Following this 2017 Judgment, in 2018, the Puttaswamy II Judgment subsequently elaborated and applied the tests to specific state measures and held the core of the Adhaar Act, 2016, as Constitutional and struck down certain Sections which mandated Adhaar for bank accounts, mobile connections and school admissions declaring them as Unconstitutional.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the <em>Binoy Visman v. Union of India (2017)<\/em><sup>7<\/sup> judgement, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of Section 139AA of the Income Tax Act, 1961, making the linking of Aadhaar with the Permanent Account Number (PAN) mandatory for filing tax returns.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-key-principles-emerging-from-puttaswamy\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Principles_Emerging_from_Puttaswamy\"><\/span>Key Principles Emerging from Puttaswamy<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Aspect<\/th><th>Principle Recognised<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Fundamental Right<\/td><td>Privacy is intrinsic to Article 21.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Human Dignity<\/td><td>Privacy is an essential facet of dignity and liberty.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Privacy Dimensions<\/td><td>Informational privacy, bodily autonomy, and spatial privacy.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Reasonable Restrictions<\/td><td>State action affecting privacy must satisfy constitutional thresholds.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-decriminalisation-of-consensual-same-sex-relations-navtej-singh-johar-v-union-of-india-2018-8\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Decriminalisation_of_Consensual_Same-Sex_Relations_Navtej_Singh_Johar_v_Union_of_India_20188\"><\/span>Decriminalisation of Consensual Same-Sex Relations: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018)<sup>8<\/sup><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Building on the Puttaswamy privacy ruling, the Court struck down the penal provisions of Section 377 of the IPC. The Court held that the right to personal liberty under Article 21 includes the right to choose a partner, sexual orientation, and the freedom to express one&#8217;s intimacy without fear of state persecution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-constitutional-significance-of-the-judgement\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Constitutional_Significance_of_the_Judgement\"><\/span>Constitutional Significance of the Judgement<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Recognised personal liberty under Article 21.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Affirmed the right to choose a partner.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Protected sexual orientation as part of individual autonomy.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Safeguarded the freedom to express one&#8217;s intimacy without fear of state persecution.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-environmental-jurisprudence-and-socio-economic-rights\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Environmental_Jurisprudence_and_Socio-Economic_Rights\"><\/span>Environmental Jurisprudence and Socio-Economic Rights<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The judiciary has consistently used Article 21 to anchor basic human necessities.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-major-rights-developed-under-article-21\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Major_Rights_Developed_Under_Article_21\"><\/span>Major Rights Developed Under Article 21<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Right<\/th><th>Leading Cases<\/th><th>Principle Established<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Clean Environment<\/td><td>Delhi Vehicular Case (1998-2002)<sup>9<\/sup><br>Ganga Pollution Case (1988)<sup>10<\/sup><br>Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991)<sup>11<\/sup><\/td><td>Breathing clean air and access to pollution-free water form part of the Right to Life under Article 21.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Right to Education<\/td><td>Mohini Jain v. State of Karnataka<sup>12<\/sup><br>Unni Krishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh<sup>13<\/sup><\/td><td>The right to life is meaningless without education, leading to the insertion of Article 21A.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Right to Livelihood<\/td><td>Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985)<sup>14<\/sup><\/td><td>Depriving a person of their livelihood amounts to depriving them of their life, requiring due process before removing pavement dwellers.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-clean-environment\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Clean_Environment\"><\/span>Clean Environment<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>In the Delhi Vehicular Case (1998-2002),<sup>9<\/sup> it was held that breathing clean air is a right under Article 21.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Ganga Pollution Case (1988)<sup>10<\/sup> held that safe drinking water is vital to the right to life under Article 21.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Furthermore, in <em>Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991)<\/em><sup>11<\/sup> the Supreme Court held that the Right to Life under Article 21 includes the right to the enjoyment of pollution-free water and air for the full enjoyment of life.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-right-to-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Right_to_Education\"><\/span>Right to Education<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>In <em>Mohini Jain v. State of Karnataka<\/em><sup>12<\/sup> and <em>Unni Krishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh<\/em><sup>13<\/sup>, the Court held that the right to life is meaningless without education.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This directly led to the insertion of Article 21A.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-right-to-livelihood\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Right_to_Livelihood\"><\/span>Right to Livelihood<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>In <em>Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985)<\/em><sup>14<\/sup>, the Court ruled that depriving a person of their livelihood amounts to depriving them of their life, forcing the State to provide due process before removing pavement dwellers.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-modern-challenges-the-contemporary-battleground-2024-2026\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Modern_Challenges_The_Contemporary_Battleground_2024%E2%80%932026\"><\/span>Modern Challenges: The Contemporary Battleground (2024\u20132026)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While the historical expansion of Article 21 remains a triumph, contemporary state practices have forced the judiciary into a polyvocal, high-stakes battle to preserve the absolute core of personal liberty and procedural due process.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-judicial-pushback-against-bulldozer-justice\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Judicial_Pushback_Against_%E2%80%98Bulldozer_Justice\"><\/span>The Judicial Pushback Against \u2018Bulldozer Justice\u2019<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The growing executive trend of executing punitive property demolitions against accused individuals\u2014colloquially termed \u2018bulldozer justice\u2019\u2014directly challenges the \u2018procedure established by law\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In a landmark ruling on November 13, 2024<sup>15<\/sup>, the Supreme Court stepped in to declare such punitive actions wholly unconstitutional and illegal, terming the sight of state-led arbitrary demolitions as a lawless state of affairs where \u2018might was right\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Court laid down strict binding guidelines, mandating digital portals, personal hearings, and a minimum 15-day notice period before any eviction or demolition.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-supreme-court-strengthens-enforcement-in-2026\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Supreme_Court_Strengthens_Enforcement_in_2026\"><\/span>Supreme Court Strengthens Enforcement in 2026<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This jurisprudence reached a critical operational milestone in July 2026.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While dealing with widespread contempt pleas alleging persistent local violations of the anti-bulldozer ruling, a three-judge bench of the Supreme Court clarified that the rule of law (under Articles 14, 19 and 21) allows no targeted victimization.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While noting that legitimate anti-encroachment actions could proceed to dissolve administrative collusion between municipal officials and lawbreakers, the Court emphatically reiterated that enforcement must never become a tool for targeting specific individuals or overriding the presumption of innocence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">To ensure local accessibility, the Supreme Court decentralised enforcement, empowering High Courts to aggressively haul up erring officials under contempt of court and impose personal financial liability to restore illegally demolished structures.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-article-21-and-due-process-concerns\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Article_21_and_Due_Process_Concerns\"><\/span>Article 21 and Due Process Concerns<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The phenomenon of using municipal laws to demolish properties of individuals accused of crimes has been heavily criticised by jurists as a complete bypass of due process.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While the Supreme Court eventually stepped in to issue pan-India guidelines against arbitrary demolitions, the protracted delay in halting these actions allowed executive entities to bypass judicial trials completely.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Legal critics argue that failing to provide an immediate remedy against extra-judicial punishments severely dilutes the protective mantle of Article 21.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This has triggered a battle of state actions against direct intervention.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-key-supreme-court-developments\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Supreme_Court_Developments\"><\/span>Key Supreme Court Developments<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Issue<\/th><th>Judicial Response<\/th><th>Constitutional Significance<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Punitive demolitions (&#8216;Bulldozer Justice&#8217;)<\/td><td>Declared unconstitutional and illegal<\/td><td>Reaffirmed Article 21 and due process protections<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Eviction and demolition procedure<\/td><td>Mandatory digital portals, personal hearings, and 15-day notice<\/td><td>Strengthened procedural safeguards<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Persistent violations of Supreme Court directions<\/td><td>High Courts are empowered to initiate contempt proceedings.<\/td><td>Improved enforcement of the rule of law<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Targeted victimisation<\/td><td>Expressly prohibited under Articles 14, 19 and 21<\/td><td>Protected equality, liberty, and presumption of innocence<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-key-takeaways\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Takeaways\"><\/span>Key Takeaways<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Article 21 continues to serve as the constitutional safeguard against arbitrary executive action.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Supreme Court declared punitive demolitions unconstitutional and reinforced procedural due process.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mandatory notice, personal hearings, and digital compliance mechanisms strengthen transparency.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>High courts now play a central role in enforcing anti-bulldozer guidelines through contempt jurisdiction.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The continuing debate reflects the constitutional tension between executive enforcement and judicial protection of fundamental rights.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-the-polyvocal-court-the-deepening-doctrinal-chasm-on-uapa-bail\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Polyvocal_Court_The_Deepening_Doctrinal_Chasm_on_UAPA_Bail\"><\/span>The Polyvocal Court: The Deepening Doctrinal Chasm on UAPA Bail<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The fiercest battle over the baseline of Article 21 is fought in the realm of national security legislation. Section 43D (5) of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA)<sup>16<\/sup> imposes a near-insurmountable threshold, stating bail cannot be granted if accusations appear <em>prima facie<\/em> (based on the first impression) true. This statutory reversal of the presumption of innocence has created two irreconcilable legal approaches within the Supreme Court&#8217;s coordinate two-judge benches.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-first-judicial-approach-national-security-and-restrictive-uapa-bail\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"First_Judicial_Approach_National_Security_and_Restrictive_UAPA_Bail\"><\/span>First Judicial Approach: National Security and Restrictive UAPA Bail<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In a line of decisions, benches dealing with high-profile cases like <strong>Gulfisha Fatima v. State (NCT of Delhi) (2026)<\/strong><sup>17<\/sup> and <strong>Gurwinder Singh v. State of Punjab (2024)<\/strong><sup>18<\/sup> treated the statutory bar as nearly absolute.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These benches held that national security concerns demand extreme caution, stating that trial delays do not create an automatic entitlement to bail, and famously warning that Article 21 must not be used as an open-ended \u2018trump card\u2019 to bypass explicit statutory mandates.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These benches reversed <strong>the State of Rajasthan v. <\/strong>Balchand and established that, under such special statutes, jail becomes the rule and bail becomes the exception.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-key-principles-from-the-restrictive-approach\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Principles_from_the_Restrictive_Approach\"><\/span>Key Principles from the Restrictive Approach<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>National security concerns require heightened judicial caution.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Delay in trial does not automatically justify bail.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Article 21 cannot override explicit statutory restrictions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Under special statutes, jail becomes the rule and bail the exception.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-second-judicial-approach-constitutional-supremacy-over-statutory-barriers\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Second_Judicial_Approach_Constitutional_Supremacy_Over_Statutory_Barriers\"><\/span>Second Judicial Approach: Constitutional Supremacy Over Statutory Barriers<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Conversely, in the groundbreaking ruling of <strong>Syed Iftikhar Andrabi v. NIA (May 2026)<\/strong><sup>19<\/sup>, a bench of Justices B.V. Nagarathna and Ujjal Bhuyan forcefully pushed back.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Relying on the landmark three-judge bench precedent in <strong>Union of India v. K.A. Najeeb (2021)<\/strong><sup>20<\/sup>, the Court ruled that a smaller two-judge bench cannot dilute or hollow out a larger bench&#8217;s ruling without violating judicial discipline.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Justice Bhuyan clarified that statutory barriers under Section 43D (5) are entirely subordinate to constitutional mandates.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When structural trial inefficiencies mean hundreds of witnesses remain unexamined over years of custody, the rigors of special statutes melt away because prolonged pre-trial incarceration amounts to unauthorized punishment without trial.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Recognising that the fundamental right of a citizen shouldn&#8217;t depend on the bench composition, the Supreme Court in mid-2026 formalised a larger constitutional reference to settle this schism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-constitutional-principles-highlighted-by-the-andrabi-ruling\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Constitutional_Principles_Highlighted_by_the_Andrabi_Ruling\"><\/span>Constitutional Principles Highlighted by the Andrabi Ruling<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Constitutional rights prevail over statutory restrictions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Judicial discipline requires adherence to larger bench precedents.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Prolonged pre-trial detention cannot become punishment without trial.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Structural delays may justify constitutional intervention despite Section 43D(5).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-special-statutes-and-the-erosion-of-due-process\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Special_Statutes_and_the_Erosion_of_Due_Process\"><\/span>Special Statutes and the Erosion of Due Process<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Legal experts point to judicial decisions under special statutes like the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) and the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act (UAPA) as prime examples of due process erosion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-pmla-judgement-and-revival-of-twin-conditions-for-bail\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"PMLA_Judgement_and_Revival_of_Twin_Conditions_for_Bail\"><\/span>PMLA Judgement and Revival of Twin Conditions for Bail<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the PMLA Judgment<sup>21<\/sup> (<strong>Vijay Madanlal Choudhary v. Union of India<\/strong>, 2022, which reversed <strong>Nikesh Tarachand Shah v. Union of India<\/strong>) the Supreme Court reversed its previous stance and fully resurrected the stringent \u2018twin conditions\u2019 for bail under Section 45 of the PMLA.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It also ruled that an Enforcement Case Information Report (ECIR) is an internal document and does not need to be provided to the accused.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Critics argue this severely reverses the jurisprudence of the due process principle of \u2018innocence until proven guilty\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-uapa-bail-restraints-and-article-21\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"UAPA_Bail_Restraints_and_Article_21\"><\/span>UAPA Bail Restraints and Article 21<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Regarding UAPA Bail Restraints (<strong>Gurwinder Singh v. State of Punjab, 2024<\/strong>) the apex court ruled that under Section 43D(5) of the UAPA, bail is an exception and jail is the rule if the allegations are <em>prima facie<\/em> true.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The ruling established that mere delay in a trial cannot be a sole ground for granting bail under the UAPA, contrasting sharply with traditional Article 21 protections regarding speedy trials, which was established by <strong>Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-comparison-of-judicial-approaches-under-special-statutes\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Comparison_of_Judicial_Approaches_Under_Special_Statutes\"><\/span>Comparison of Judicial Approaches Under Special Statutes<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Issue<\/th><th>Restrictive Approach<\/th><th>Constitutional Approach<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Leading Cases<\/td><td>Gulfisha Fatima (2026), Gurwinder Singh (2024)<\/td><td>Syed Iftikhar Andrabi (2026), K.A. Najeeb (2021)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>View of Section 43D(5)<\/td><td>Near-absolute statutory bar<\/td><td>Subject to constitutional guarantees<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Article 21<\/td><td>Cannot override statutory mandate<\/td><td>Prevails over statutory restrictions<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Trial Delay<\/td><td>Not an automatic ground for bail<\/td><td>May justify bail where prolonged incarceration amounts to punishment without trial<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Guiding Principle<\/td><td>Jail is the rule.<\/td><td>Constitutional liberty remains paramount.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-reverse-burden-clauses-under-special-statutes\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Reverse_Burden_Clauses_Under_Special_Statutes\"><\/span>Reverse Burden Clauses Under Special Statutes<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">All these above-stated special statutes are governed by the \u2018reverse burden clauses&#8217;, i.e., \u2018guilty until proven innocent\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Besides them, we can also find certain \u2018Reverse Burden of Proof\u2019 (or reverse onus) clauses under the Companies Act, 2013.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-major-legislations-containing-reverse-burden-provisions\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Major_Legislations_Containing_Reverse_Burden_Provisions\"><\/span>Major Legislations Containing Reverse Burden Provisions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Statute<\/th><th>Reverse Burden Feature<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA)<\/td><td>Section 43D(5) imposes stringent restrictions on bail.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA)<\/td><td>Section 45 contains the stringent twin conditions for bail.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Companies Act, 2013<\/td><td>Contains specific Reverse Burden of Proof (reverse onus) provisions.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-key-reverse-burden-provisions-under-the-companies-act-2013\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Reverse_Burden_Provisions_Under_the_Companies_Act_2013\"><\/span>Key Reverse Burden Provisions Under the Companies Act, 2013<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Act contains several critical provisions where the presumption of guilt or liability is legally shifted onto corporate officers:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Provision<\/th><th>Nature of Reverse Burden<\/th><th>What the Accused Must Prove<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Section 447<\/td><td>Punishment for Fraud<\/td><td>No fraudulent intent or undue advantage<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Sections 34 &amp; 35<\/td><td>Liability for Misstatements in Prospectus<\/td><td>The statement was true or immaterial.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Sections 448 &amp; 449<\/td><td>False Statements and False Evidence<\/td><td>Due diligence and reasonable belief in accuracy<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Section 2(60)<\/td><td>Officer Who Is in Default<\/td><td>No knowledge, consent, or active dissent<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-section-447-punishment-for-fraud-22\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Section_447_%E2%80%94_Punishment_for_Fraud22\"><\/span>Section 447 \u2014 Punishment for Fraud<sup>22<\/sup><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is the most potent provision in the Act. Under Section 447, fraud involving serious amounts is a cognisable and non-bailable offence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>The Shift:<\/strong> If the Serious Fraud Investigation Office (SFIO) or the court establishes that a financial discrepancy or misstatement exists, the managing authorities are presumed to have had fraudulent intent.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>The Accused Must Prove:<\/strong> They had no intent to deceive, injure the interests of the company, or gain an undue advantage.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-sections-34-amp-35-criminal-and-civil-liability-for-misstatements-in-prospectus-23\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Sections_34_35_%E2%80%94_Criminal_and_Civil_Liability_for_Misstatements_in_Prospectus23\"><\/span>Sections 34 &amp; 35 \u2014 Criminal and Civil Liability for Misstatements in Prospectus<sup>23<\/sup><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When a company issues a prospectus to raise funds from the public, any untrue, misleading, or omitted statement triggers immediate liability.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>The Shift:<\/strong> Once an investor proves they suffered a loss based on an inaccurate prospectus, criminal or civil liability automatically attaches to the directors, promoters, and experts who authorised it.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>The Accused Must Prove:<\/strong> Under Section 34, the accused must prove that the untrue statement was immaterial, or that they had reasonable grounds to believe (and did believe up to the time of issue) that the statement was true.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-sections-448-amp-449-false-statements-and-false-evidence-24\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Sections_448_449_%E2%80%94_False_Statements_and_False_Evidence24\"><\/span>Sections 448 &amp; 449 \u2014 False Statements and False Evidence<sup>24<\/sup><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These sections penalise intentional misstatements in returns, reports, certificates, or financial statements filed with the Registrar of Companies (ROC).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>The Shift:<\/strong> If a filed document is proven false, the executive who signed or authorised it is presumed to have done so intentionally.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>The Accused Must Prove:<\/strong> That they exercised due diligence and had reasons to believe the contents were completely accurate at the time of submission.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-section-2-60-officer-who-is-in-default-25\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Section_260_%E2%80%94_Officer_Who_Is_in_Default25\"><\/span>Section 2(60) \u2014 Officer Who Is in Default<sup>25<\/sup><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This section defines who can be held criminally liable for general regulatory non-compliances within a company.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>The Shift:<\/strong> Whole-time directors and Key Managerial Personnel (KMPs), like the CEO, CFO, and Company Secretary, are automatically presumed liable for corporate violations.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>The Accused Must Prove:<\/strong> To escape liability, a director must prove they actively dissented against the non-compliance during board proceedings or that the violation occurred completely without their knowledge or consent.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-why-the-legislature-uses-reverse-onus-in-company-laws\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Why_the_Legislature_Uses_Reverse_Onus_in_Company_Laws\"><\/span>Why the Legislature Uses Reverse Onus in Company Laws?<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Indian legal system balances these harsh clauses based on specific legal and practical justifications:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-foundational-justification\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Foundational_Justification\"><\/span>The Foundational Justification<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Justification<\/th><th>Explanation<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Special Knowledge Doctrine<\/strong><\/td><td>Company insiders possess the exclusive custody of internal books, emails, and transaction trails.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Deterrence Against Corporate Scams<\/strong><\/td><td>Designed to prevent white-collar criminals from hiding behind complex corporate veils.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Protection of Public Capital<\/strong><\/td><td>Safeguards retail investors, banks, and creditors from systemic corporate syphoning.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Legal scholars, defence attorneys, and human rights jurists frequently argue that reverse burden clauses represent an erosion of due process under Article 21. However, the Supreme Court of India has consistently navigated this friction by attempting to balance individual liberties with compelling state interests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Here is how reverse burden clauses (like those in the Companies Act, PMLA, or NDPS) create an ongoing constitutional conflict with Article 21:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-constitutional-conflict-between-reverse-burden-clauses-and-article-21\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Constitutional_Conflict_Between_Reverse_Burden_Clauses_and_Article_21\"><\/span>Constitutional Conflict Between Reverse Burden Clauses and Article 21<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-dilution-of-the-presumption-of-innocence\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Dilution_of_the_%E2%80%98Presumption_of_Innocence\"><\/span>Dilution of the &#8216;Presumption of Innocence&#8217;<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The presumption of innocence is universally regarded as a baseline requirement of a fair trial. Critics argue that shifting the burden of proof effectively establishes a presumption of guilt. By forcing an executive or director to prove they had no fraudulent intent or knowledge, the law departs from the traditional standard where the state must prove every element of a crime beyond a reasonable doubt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-risk-of-wrongful-convictions-amp-inequality-of-arms\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Risk_of_Wrongful_Convictions_%E2%80%98Inequality_of_Arms\"><\/span>The Risk of Wrongful Convictions &amp; &#8216;Inequality of Arms&#8217;<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Proving a negative\u2014such as proving you did not know a transaction was fraudulent\u2014is inherently difficult. Under-resourced defendants or independent directors who lack access to complex corporate documents may struggle to clear their names, increasing the risk of wrongful conviction. This disrupts the &#8216;equality of arms&#8217; between the immense power of state regulatory investigative machinery and an individual defendant.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-indirect-violation-of-article-20-3-self-incrimination\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Indirect_Violation_of_Article_203_Self-Incrimination\"><\/span>Indirect Violation of Article 20(3) (Self-Incrimination)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Because the law presumes guilt once foundational facts are met, an accused person is practically compelled to step into the witness box or produce evidence to clear their name. Legal critics argue this indirectly erodes the right to silence and the constitutional protection against self-incrimination guaranteed under Article 20(3).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-how-the-supreme-court-justifies-and-restricts-reverse-onus\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"How_the_Supreme_Court_Justifies_and_Restricts_Reverse_Onus\"><\/span>How the Supreme Court Justifies and Restricts Reverse Onus?<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Despite these criticisms, the Supreme Court has upheld the constitutionality of reverse onus clauses by implementing strict judicial safeguards to ensure they do not completely violate Article 21:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>The Doctrine of &#8216;Foundational Facts&#8217;:<\/strong> In cases like <em>Noor Aga v. State of Punjab<\/em><sup>26<\/sup>, the Supreme Court ruled that the burden never shifts to the accused automatically. The prosecution must first prove basic, initial &#8216;foundational facts&#8217; beyond a reasonable doubt (e.g., that a financial misstatement actually exists and that the director signed it). Only then does the onus shift to the defence.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>The Test of Proportionality:<\/strong> The Court uses a balancing act. If an offense poses an extraordinary menace to society, public interest, or the national economy (such as massive corporate scams or money laundering), a statutory shift in the burden of proof is deemed a proportionate and reasonable restriction on liberty.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Lower Evidentiary Standard for Defence:<\/strong> To keep the trial &#8216;fair&#8217;, courts do not require the accused to prove their innocence &#8220;beyond a reasonable doubt&#8221;. The accused can discharge their burden simply via the preponderance of probability\u2014showing that their version of innocence is more likely true than not (the 51% rule of the balance scale).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-the-new-frontier-intersecting-article-21-with-bnss-frameworks\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_New_Frontier_Intersecting_Article_21_with_BNSS_Frameworks\"><\/span>The New Frontier: Intersecting Article 21 with BNSS Frameworks<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As India transitions fully into its new criminal justice framework via the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) and Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), classic Article 21 bail principles face immediate operational friction. The judiciary is tasked with interpreting these statutory revisions through the prism of constitutional due process.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-section-187-bnss-the-dilemma-between-police-remand-and-personal-liberty\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Section_187_BNSS_The_Dilemma_Between_Police_Remand_and_Personal_Liberty\"><\/span>Section 187 BNSS: The Dilemma Between Police Remand and Personal Liberty<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Under the old CrPC, police custody was strictly limited to the first 15 days following arrest. However, Section 187 of the BNSS<sup>27<\/sup> introduces an expansive paradigm shift, allowing the 15-day police remand to be split and spread intermittently across the initial 60- or 90-day investigative window.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Legal practitioners have heavily argued before the courts that this fragmented detention model severely undercuts regular bail applications under Section 480 of the BNSS. By keeping the window for police interrogation perpetually open, the State can systematically argue against regular bail on the grounds that custodial investigation remains unexhausted.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Supreme Court is already seeing a wave of petitions demanding that Section 187 be read restrictively, ensuring it does not morph into an instrument of prolonged, arbitrary State detention.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-key-issues-raised-under-section-187-bnss\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Issues_Raised_Under_Section_187_BNSS\"><\/span>Key Issues Raised Under Section 187 BNSS<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Police custody can now be fragmented across the investigation period.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Regular bail under Section 480 BNSS may become more difficult to obtain.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The prosecution may continue to seek custody by claiming the investigation remains incomplete.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Constitutional challenges focus on protecting Article 21 and preventing prolonged detention.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Issue<\/th><th>Earlier CrPC Position<\/th><th>Position Under Section 187 BNSS<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Police Custody<\/td><td>Limited to the first 15 days after arrest.<\/td><td>Fifteen days may be split and used intermittently during the first 60 or 90 days of investigation.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Impact on Bail<\/td><td>Custodial interrogation concluded quickly.<\/td><td>The custody window remains available for a longer duration, potentially affecting regular bail applications.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Constitutional Concern<\/td><td>Lower risk of extended police custody.<\/td><td>Possible conflict with Article 21 protections against arbitrary detention.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-section-479-bnss-progression-or-regression-for-undertrials\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Section_479_BNSS_Progression_or_Regression_for_Undertrials\"><\/span>Section 479 BNSS: Progression or Regression for Undertrials?<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">On paper, Section 479 of the BNSS<sup>28<\/sup> (which replaces Section 436A of the old CrPC) looks like a major victory for Article 21 and the right to a speedy trial. It introduces a compassionate &#8220;one-third&#8221; threshold, allowing first-time offenders who have served one-third of their maximum possible sentence as undertrials to be released on mandatory default bail.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However, high-velocity litigations in 2025 and 2026 have exposed a major legislative trap: the inclusion of restrictive multi-offence clauses. If an undertrial has multiple cases or separate FIRs pending against them\u2014a frequent reality for political dissidents, activists, and marginalized communities\u2014they are completely barred from accessing the relaxed statutory relief under Section 479.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Consequently, the Supreme Court has had to re-anchor bail jurisprudence back to classic doctrines like <em>Satender Kumar Antil v. CBI (2022)<\/em><sup>29<\/sup>, reminding lower courts that when statutory pathways fail due to restrictive drafting, the open-ended reservoir of Article 21 remains fully active to grant relief against endless incarceration.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-major-features-of-section-479-bnss\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Major_Features_of_Section_479_BNSS\"><\/span>Major Features of Section 479 BNSS<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Replaces Section 436A of the CrPC.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Introduces the &#8220;one-third&#8221; sentence threshold for eligible first-time offenders.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Recognises the constitutional importance of speedy trials.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Contains restrictive multi-offence provisions affecting eligibility.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Continues to require constitutional oversight through Article 21 where statutory remedies become unavailable.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Aspect<\/th><th>Potential Benefit<\/th><th>Practical Challenge<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>One-third Rule<\/td><td>Earlier release for eligible first-time offenders.<\/td><td>Benefit unavailable where multiple cases exist.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Article 21 Protection<\/td><td>Supports the right to a speedy trial.<\/td><td>Restrictive drafting may reduce statutory relief.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Judicial Response<\/td><td>Courts continue protecting personal liberty.<\/td><td>Reliance shifts back to constitutional jurisprudence under <em>Satender Kumar Antil v. CBI (2022)<\/em>.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-informational-privacy-in-the-ai-era-article-21-and-the-dpdp-act\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Informational_Privacy_in_the_AI_Era_Article_21_and_the_DPDP_Act\"><\/span>Informational Privacy in the AI Era: Article 21 and the DPDP Act<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The expansion of Article 21 is no longer restricted to physical constraints or traditional state surveillance; it has moved irrevocably into the digital ether. Following the landmark declaration of data privacy as a fundamental right in <em>K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017)<\/em>, the legislative branch enacted the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act. However, the operationalisation of this Act has triggered a critical constitutional dialogue on whether its provisions enhance or dilute the shield of Article 21.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-the-state-exemption-hole-vs-the-puttaswamy-standard\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_State_Exemption_Hole_vs_The_Puttaswamy_Standard\"><\/span>The State Exemption Hole vs. The Puttaswamy Standard<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The core conflict between the DPDP Act and Article 21 lies in the sweeping immunities granted to government agencies. Under Section 7 (Legitimate Uses) and Section 17 of the DPDP Act<sup>30<\/sup>, the Central Government possesses expansive powers to exempt state instrumentalities from the core data protection obligations\u2014such as notice, consent, and purpose limitation\u2014in the interest of sovereignty, state security, or public order.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Constitutional scholars and digital rights litigants argue that these open-ended exemptions fail the strict three-fold proportionality test established in <em>Puttaswamy<\/em>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Legality<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Necessity<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Proportionality<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">By enabling mass data processing and state surveillance without robust judicial oversight mechanisms or independent review, the Act runs the risk of formalizing structural executive overreach, threatening the informational privacy guaranteed under Article 21.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-judicial-approach-to-procedural-compliance-and-privacy\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Judicial_Approach_to_Procedural_Compliance_and_Privacy\"><\/span>Judicial Approach to Procedural Compliance and Privacy<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Recent judicial reviews highlight a trend where courts prioritise procedural compliance by state agencies rather than examining if the underlying law or action itself is substantively fair.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the landmark case of <em>Vibhor Garg v. Neha (2025)<\/em><sup>31<\/sup>, the Supreme Court held that secretly recorded conversations between spouses could be admissible in matrimonial proceedings, in compliance with Section 128 of The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A Bench comprising Justice B.V. Nagarathna and Justice Satish Chandra Sharma delivered the ruling on July 14, 2025, setting aside a previous Judgment by the Punjab and Haryana High Court. The Bench established that <strong>\u2018Relevance precedes Consent\u2019<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Commentators from rights organizations like the Citizens for Justice and Peace (CJP) noted that this decision weakens the substantive due process established in the <em>Puttaswamy<\/em> judgment, by prioritizing procedural evidence gathering over the intrinsic right to privacy and personal autonomy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-key-constitutional-concerns-under-the-dpdp-act\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Key_Constitutional_Concerns_Under_the_DPDP_Act\"><\/span>Key Constitutional Concerns Under the DPDP Act<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Issue<\/th><th>Constitutional Concern<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Government Exemptions<\/td><td>Broad exemption powers under Sections 7 and 17 may dilute Article 21 privacy protections.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Proportionality Test<\/td><td>Critics argue the exemptions fail the legality, necessity, and proportionality standards laid down in <em>Puttaswamy<\/em>.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>State Surveillance<\/td><td>Potential expansion of executive surveillance without sufficient judicial oversight.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Procedural vs. Substantive Fairness<\/td><td>Recent judicial decisions indicate greater emphasis on procedural compliance than substantive privacy rights.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-the-evisceration-of-public-accountability-defanging-the-rti-act\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Evisceration_of_Public_Accountability_Defanging_the_RTI_Act\"><\/span>The Evisceration of Public Accountability: Defanging the RTI Act<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A deeply troubling operational fallout of the DPDP Act is its systemic impact on the Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Through Section 44 of the DPDP Act<sup>32<\/sup>, the legislature amended Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act. Previously, the law prohibited the disclosure of personal information unless it had a larger public interest or relevance to public activity. The DPDP amendment imposes a flat, unyielding ban on the disclosure of any personal data of public officials.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This statutory conflict has forced a critical constitutional realisation: the right to look at public data is closely tied to public accountability.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">By effectively creating an absolute wall of anonymity around public servants, the DPDP Act restricts citizen oversight over state corruption, nepotism, and arbitrary administrative decisions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Benches in 2025 and 2026 are increasingly being asked to balance this statutory clash, evaluating whether the right to privacy under Article 21 can be weaponized by the state as a defensive shield to undermine the public&#8217;s right to transparency, which is itself an offshoot of Articles 19(1)(a) and 21 of the Constitution of India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-impact-of-section-44-on-the-rti-act\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Impact_of_Section_44_on_the_RTI_Act\"><\/span>Impact of Section 44 on the RTI Act<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Earlier RTI Position<\/th><th>Position After DPDP Amendment<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Personal information could be disclosed if justified by larger public interest or connected with public activity.<\/td><td>Broad prohibition on disclosure of personal data relating to public officials.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Balanced privacy with transparency.<\/td><td>Privacy receives greater statutory protection, potentially limiting public accountability.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Enabled citizen oversight of governance.<\/td><td>Raises concerns regarding reduced transparency in public administration.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-constitutional-issues-at-a-glance\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Constitutional_Issues_at_a_Glance\"><\/span>Constitutional Issues at a Glance<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Expansion of informational privacy under Article 21.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Government exemption powers under Sections 7 and 17 of the DPDP Act.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Application of the <em>Puttaswamy<\/em> proportionality test.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Judicial treatment of privacy versus evidentiary relevance.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Impact of Section 44 of the DPDP Act on the RTI Act.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Balancing privacy rights with transparency and public accountability.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Interaction between Articles 19(1)(a) and 21 of the Constitution of India.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-conclusion-the-perpetual-sentinel\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion_The_Perpetual_Sentinel\"><\/span>Conclusion: The Perpetual Sentinel<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">From its humble beginnings as a textually constrained provision in 1950, Article 21 has evolved into a dynamic constitutional sentinel. It stands as a testament to the fact that laws exist for citizens, not citizens for laws. Like gears must be changed accordingly in compliance with the speed of a motor car, similarly Article 21 has been witnessed to be expanded and amended accordingly in compliance with the changing circumstances and needs of India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As India navigates aggressive executive state actions, digital personal data protections, and complex procedural shifts under the BNSS framework, the judiciary must remain unwavering. This article clearly shows the tectonic difference between constitutional provisions and the pragmatic legislative framework.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-judicial-review-as-the-guardian-of-article-21\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Judicial_Review_as_the_Guardian_of_Article_21\"><\/span>Judicial Review as the Guardian of Article 21<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">No doubt why <strong>Judicial Review<\/strong> has been declared to be one of the unamenable elements of the Basic Structure of the Constitution in <em>Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973)<\/em>, and subsequently in cases like <em>Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975)<\/em>, <em>Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980)<\/em>, and <em>L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India (1997)<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Hence, the courts cannot afford to retreat into the formalistic, passive shell of the <em>Gopalan<\/em> era. The survival of Indian democracy depends entirely on keeping the heart of Article 21 beating\u2014ensuring that the &#8220;procedure established by law&#8221; remains forever synonymous with deep systemic justice, institutional fairness, and unyielding human dignity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As The Principles of Natural Justice, which owes its origin to The Natural Law School, say, <em>\u2018Justice should not only be done, but also must be seen to be done.\u2019<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-endnotes\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Endnotes\"><\/span>Endnotes<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Sl. No.<\/th><th>Reference<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>1<\/td><td>Article 21, Constitution of India.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>2<\/td><td>SaveLIFE Foundation v. Union of India, (2016) 7 SCC 194.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>3<\/td><td>K. Gopalan v. State of Madras, AIR 1950 SC 27.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>4<\/td><td>D.M. Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla, (1976) 2 SCC 521.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>5<\/td><td>Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, (1978) 1 SCC 248.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>6<\/td><td>S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India, (2017) 10 SCC 1.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>7<\/td><td>Binoy Viswam v. Union of India, (2017) 7 SCC 59.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>8<\/td><td>Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India, (2018) 10 SCC 1.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>9<\/td><td>C. Mehta v. Union of India (Delhi Vehicular Case), (2001) 3 SCC 756.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>10<\/td><td>C. Mehta v. Union of India (Ganga Pollution Case), (1988) 1 SCC 471.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>11<\/td><td>Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar, (1991) 1 SCC 598.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>12<\/td><td>Mohini Jain v. State of Karnataka, (1992) 3 SCC 666.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>13<\/td><td>Unni Krishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh, (1993) 1 SCC 645.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>14<\/td><td>Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation, (1985) 3 SCC 545.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>15<\/td><td>In Re: Directions in the Matter of Demolition of Structures, 2024 INSC 866.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>16<\/td><td>Section 43D(5), Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>17<\/td><td>Gulfisha Fatima v. State (NCT of Delhi), 2026 INSC 2.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>18<\/td><td>Gurwinder Singh v. State of Punjab, 2024 INSC 92.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>19<\/td><td>Syed Iftikhar Andrabi v. National Investigation Agency, 2026 INSC 503.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>20<\/td><td>Union of India v. K.A. Najeeb, (2021) 3 SCC 713.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>21<\/td><td>Vijay Madanlal Choudhary v. Union of India, 2022 SCC OnLine SC 929.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>22<\/td><td>Section 447, Companies Act, 2013.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>23<\/td><td>Sections 34 &amp; 35, Companies Act, 2013.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>24<\/td><td>Sections 448 &amp; 449, Companies Act, 2013.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>25<\/td><td>Section 2(60), Companies Act, 2013.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>26<\/td><td>Noor Aga v. State of Punjab, (2008) 16 SCC 417.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>27<\/td><td>Section 187, Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>28<\/td><td>Section 479, Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>29<\/td><td>Satender Kumar Antil v. Central Bureau of Investigation, (2022) 10 SCC 51.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>30<\/td><td>Sections 7 &amp; 17, Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>31<\/td><td>Vibhor Garg v. Neha, 2025 INSC 829.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>32<\/td><td>Section 44, Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Written By: Shrestha Ghosh<\/strong>, Shyamnagar, West Bengal<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-yoast-seo-related-links yoast-seo-related-links\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/burden-of-proof-an-analysis-with-indian-and-international-case-laws\/\">Burden of Proof: An Analysis with Indian and International Case Laws<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/shell-games-are-reverse-mergers-indias-next-big-corporate-risk\/\">Shell Games: Are Reverse Mergers India\u2019s Next Big Corporate Risk?<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/uapa-case-supreme-courts-landmark-directives-on-pending-criminal-cases-under-uapa-and-reverse-burden-of-proof\/\">Understanding the UAPA Case: Supreme Court&#8217;s Landmark Directives on Pending Criminal Cases Under UAPA and Reverse Burden of Proof<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/compliances-under-the-dpdp-act-for-startups-collecting-customer-data\/\">Compliances under the DPDP Act for startups collecting customer data<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/indias-dpdp-act-vs-europes-gdpr-what-global-businesses-must-know\/\">India\u2019s DPDP Act vs Europe\u2019s GDPR: What Global Businesses Must Know<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Abstract The traditional boundaries of constitutional due process in India are undergoing a profound structural realignment. While Article 21 has historically expanded to safeguard individual liberty against arbitrary state action, a triad of contemporary legislative shifts threatens to test its systemic elasticity. The expanded police custody limits under the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS)\u2014which supersedes<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1556,"featured_media":29413,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_topic_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_reply_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"two_page_speed":[],"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"_joinchat":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[14],"tags":[775,28],"class_list":["post-29414","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-constitutional-law","tag-constitutional-law","tag-top-news"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v28.2 (Yoast SEO v28.2) - 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