{"id":35295,"date":"2026-11-03T12:09:45","date_gmt":"2026-11-03T12:09:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/?p=35295"},"modified":"2026-11-03T12:17:05","modified_gmt":"2026-11-03T12:17:05","slug":"sharing-photos-without-consent-india","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/","title":{"rendered":"Online Sharing of Photographs and Videos Without Consent: When Does It Constitute Copyright Infringement under Indian Law?"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 id=\"h-abstract\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Abstract\"><\/span>Abstract<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Social media platforms, algorithmic feeds and messaging apps have changed how photographs and videos are made, passed around and monetised. They have also created friction between property rights in creative work, the privacy and dignity of the people who appear in that work, and the rules that govern online platforms. Many people assume that putting up or forwarding someone else&#8217;s photograph or video without consent raises only criminal or privacy questions under the Information Technology Act, 2000 and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023. This paper shows that the assumption is incomplete. Unauthorised online sharing of visual material can also amount to infringement under the Copyright Act, 1957.<\/p><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_89 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Abstract\" >Abstract<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#1_Introduction\" >1. Introduction<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#2_Research_Methodology_and_Structure\" >2. Research Methodology and Structure<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#21_Doctrinal_Research_Method\" >2.1. Doctrinal Research Method<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#22_Stages_of_Research\" >2.2. Stages of Research<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#23_Research_Framework_and_Main_Legal_Authorities\" >2.3. Research Framework and Main Legal Authorities<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#3_The_Statutory_Framework_Photographs_and_Videos_as_Protected_Works\" >3. The Statutory Framework: Photographs and Videos as Protected Works<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#31_Photographs_as_Artistic_Works\" >3.1 Photographs as Artistic Works<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#32_Videos_as_Cinematograph_Films\" >3.2 Videos as Cinematograph Films<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#33_Duration\" >3.3 Duration<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#4_Authorship_and_the_Depicted_Subject\" >4. Authorship and the Depicted Subject<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#41_Statutory_Authorship_Under_Section_2d\" >4.1 Statutory Authorship Under Section 2(d)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#42_The_Selfie_Author_and_Subject_in_One_Person\" >4.2 The Selfie: Author and Subject in One Person<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#43_Commissioned_Photographs_Section_17b\" >4.3 Commissioned Photographs: Section 17(b)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#44_Employment_Sections_17a_and_17c\" >4.4 Employment: Sections 17(a) and 17(c)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-16\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#45_The_Platform_Licence\" >4.5 The Platform Licence<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-17\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#5_The_Anatomy_of_Online_Infringement_Under_Section_51\" >5. The Anatomy of Online Infringement Under Section 51<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-18\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#51_The_Exclusive_Rights_in_Section_14\" >5.1 The Exclusive Rights in Section 14<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-19\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#52_%E2%80%9CCommunication_to_the_Public%E2%80%9D_Under_Section_2ff\" >5.2 &#8220;Communication to the Public&#8221; Under Section 2(ff)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-20\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#53_Where_the_Law_Draws_the_Line\" >5.3 Where the Law Draws the Line<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-4' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-21\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Direct_Upload_and_Mirroring\" >Direct Upload and Mirroring<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-22\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Screenshots\" >Screenshots<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-23\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Hyperlinks_Framing_and_Embedding\" >Hyperlinks, Framing and Embedding<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-24\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Private_Messaging\" >Private Messaging<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-25\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#6_Defences_and_the_Limits_of_Fair_Dealing\" >6. Defences and the Limits of Fair Dealing<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-26\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#61_The_Closed_List_in_Section_521a\" >6.1 The Closed List in Section 52(1)(a)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-27\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#62_Is_the_Dealing_Fair\" >6.2 Is the Dealing Fair?<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-28\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#63_Public_Interest_and_Public_Curiosity\" >6.3 Public Interest and Public Curiosity<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-29\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#7_Intermediary_Liability_and_Safe_Harbour\" >7. Intermediary Liability and Safe Harbour<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-30\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#71_Section_79_of_the_IT_Act_2000\" >7.1 Section 79 of the IT Act, 2000<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-31\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#72_Shreya_Singhal_and_Myspace\" >7.2 Shreya Singhal and Myspace<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-32\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#73_The_Intermediary_Guidelines_Rules_2021\" >7.3 The Intermediary Guidelines Rules, 2021<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-33\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#74_Dynamic_Injunctions\" >7.4 Dynamic Injunctions<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-34\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#8_Copyright_Privacy_and_Personality_Rights\" >8. Copyright, Privacy and Personality Rights<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-35\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#81_The_Constitutional_and_Statutory_Setting\" >8.1 The Constitutional and Statutory Setting<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-36\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#82_Personality_Rights\" >8.2 Personality Rights<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-37\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#83_Moral_Rights_Under_Section_57\" >8.3 Moral Rights Under Section 57<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-38\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#9_Remedies_and_Enforcement\" >9. Remedies and Enforcement<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-39\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#91_Civil_Remedies_Sections_55_58_and_62\" >9.1 Civil Remedies (Sections 55, 58 and 62)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-40\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#92_Criminal_Remedies_Section_63\" >9.2 Criminal Remedies (Section 63)<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-41\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#10_Comparative_Perspectives\" >10. Comparative Perspectives<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-42\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#United_States\" >United States<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-43\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#European_Union\" >European Union<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-44\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#United_Kingdom\" >United Kingdom<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-45\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#11_Application_to_Seven_Digital_Scenarios\" >11. Application to Seven Digital Scenarios<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-46\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Conclusion_and_Recommendations\" >Conclusion and Recommendations<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-47\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Give_the_Depicted_Person_a_Right_to_Stop_Publication\" >Give the Depicted Person a Right to Stop Publication<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-48\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Unify_Takedown_Channels\" >Unify Takedown Channels<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-49\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Keep_Fair_Dealing_Firm\" >Keep Fair Dealing Firm<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-50\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#Clarify_the_Law_on_Framing_and_AI_Scraping\" >Clarify the Law on Framing and AI Scraping<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-51\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#References_and_Bibliography\" >References and Bibliography<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-52\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#A_Statutes_and_Rules\" >A. Statutes and Rules<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-53\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#B_Cases\" >B. Cases<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-54\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/sharing-photos-without-consent-india\/#C_Books\" >C. Books<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Using a doctrinal method, the paper identifies when non-consensual sharing becomes actionable infringement under Section 51. It separates the author of a photograph or video, who is usually its first owner, from the person depicted in it, who generally owns nothing in the work. It then examines the ownership rules in Section 17, the exclusive rights in Section 14, the closed list of fair dealing purposes in Section 52(1)(a), the safe harbour in Section 79 of the IT Act read with the Intermediary Guidelines Rules, 2021, and the way copyright meets privacy and personality rights after Puttaswamy. Seven common online scenarios are tested against these rules, and the Indian position is compared briefly with that of the United States, the European Union and the United Kingdom. The paper ends with practical reforms that would help creators and also give depicted persons a faster route to removal when they do not hold the copyright.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-1-introduction\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"1_Introduction\"><\/span>1. Introduction<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The old line between private expression, social conversation and mass communication has largely disappeared. A phone with a good camera, cheap broadband and platforms such as Instagram, X, Facebook, YouTube, Reddit, Snapchat, Telegram and WhatsApp let almost anyone make and publish images. Photographs, short reels, live streams and clips have become the common language of online talk.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The same technology makes copying effortless. With a tap, a file can be downloaded, screen-recorded, screenshotted, scraped from a private account, mirrored on other servers and shown to millions of people, all without the knowledge or consent of the person who made it or the person who appears in it. The problems this causes range from casual reposting of a stranger&#8217;s portrait and the commercial use of a photographer&#8217;s work by a marketing agency to harassment, non-consensual sharing of intimate images (often called &#8220;revenge pornography&#8221;), viral shaming and AI-generated deepfakes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When a picture or video is circulated without consent, discussion usually turns to criminal law and privacy: defamation, obscenity provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act), or the right to privacy under Article 21 of the Constitution. These remedies matter. But another body of law applies at the same time: the Copyright Act, 1957. It protects far more than celebrated works of art. From the moment an original work is fixed, it gives its author economic and moral rights.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Applying copyright to online sharing is not simple. Digital files can be copied endlessly without anyone losing the original. Indian law also keeps the author of a visual work separate from the person shown in it. Several questions follow.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Who owns the copyright when a photograph is taken?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Does the person depicted have any claim under copyright?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Does reposting or embedding an image amount to reproduction or communication to the public?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>And when can a person who shared someone else&#8217;s picture rely on fair dealing?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This paper takes up these questions in turn.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-2-research-methodology-and-structure\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"2_Research_Methodology_and_Structure\"><\/span>2. Research Methodology and Structure<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-2-1-doctrinal-research-method\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"21_Doctrinal_Research_Method\"><\/span>2.1. Doctrinal Research Method<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The paper follows a doctrinal method. It reads the statutory text closely, studies the decisions of Indian courts, and uses foreign materials only for comparison. The scenarios in Section 11 are illustrations used to test the rules. They are not empirical data.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-2-2-stages-of-research\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"22_Stages_of_Research\"><\/span>2.2. Stages of Research<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The research was carried out in the following stages:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Identifying the problem and defining its scope, namely where unauthorised online sharing meets economic rights, moral rights and personal liberty.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Framing the research questions: (a) what visual material is protected; (b) how Section 17 divides ownership between the person who takes a picture and the person shown in it; (c) which acts infringe under Section 51 in networked settings; (d) how far Section 52 fair dealing reaches; and (e) what responsibility intermediaries bear.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Analysing the Copyright Act, 1957, in particular Sections 2(c), 2(d), 2(f), 2(ff), 2(s), 2(uu), 2(xxa), 13, 14, 17, 25, 26, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, 62 and 63.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Studying how the Copyright Act fits with the IT Act, 2000 (Sections 66E, 67A and 79), the Intermediary Guidelines Rules, 2021, and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Examining decisions of the Supreme Court and High Courts on originality, communication to the public, safe harbour and dynamic injunctions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Comparing the position in the United States, the European Union and the United Kingdom.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Testing the rules against seven common online scenarios.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Drawing conclusions and suggesting reforms.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-2-3-research-framework-and-main-legal-authorities\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"23_Research_Framework_and_Main_Legal_Authorities\"><\/span>2.3. Research Framework and Main Legal Authorities<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The following table identifies the principal research areas, their focus and the main statutory and judicial authorities examined in the paper.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Research Stage<\/th><th>Focus<\/th><th>Main Authorities<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Subsistence<\/strong><\/td><td>Originality in photographs; fixation of films<\/td><td>Sections 2(c), 2(f), 13; Eastern Book Company v. D.B. Modak; Feist Publications<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Ownership<\/strong><\/td><td>Author and depicted subject; commissioned and employee work<\/td><td>Section 17: Indian Performing Rights Society v. Eastern Indian Motion Pictures Association<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Infringement<\/strong><\/td><td>Reproduction, communication to the public, framing<\/td><td>Sections 2(ff), 14, 51, 52(1)(c); Svensson; UTV Software<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Defences<\/strong><\/td><td>Closed list of fair dealing purposes<\/td><td>Section 52(1)(a); Rameshwari Photocopy; Hubbard v. Vosper<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Platforms<\/strong><\/td><td>Safe harbour, notice and takedown, dynamic injunctions<\/td><td>Section 79 of the IT Act; Rule 3 of the 2021 Rules; Shreya Singhal; Myspace<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Privacy and Personality<\/strong><\/td><td>Dignity, personality rights, moral rights<\/td><td>Article 21; Puttaswamy; R. Rajagopal; Section 57; Section 66E IT Act<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-3-the-statutory-framework-photographs-and-videos-as-protected-works\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"3_The_Statutory_Framework_Photographs_and_Videos_as_Protected_Works\"><\/span>3. The Statutory Framework: Photographs and Videos as Protected Works<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Before asking whether anything has been infringed, one must establish that the visual material is a protected work. The Act treats still photographs and moving images separately, with different rules on authorship.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-3-1-photographs-as-artistic-works\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"31_Photographs_as_Artistic_Works\"><\/span>3.1 Photographs as Artistic Works<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 2(c)(i) lists a photograph among artistic works and adds that this is so whether or not the work has artistic quality. The law therefore does not judge whether a picture is a masterpiece or a quick phone snapshot. Both qualify as artistic works at first sight.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 2(s) says that a photograph includes a photolithograph and any work made by a process similar to photography, but not any part of a cinematograph film. A still frame taken from a video is therefore treated with the film, while a stand-alone picture taken with a camera sensor falls under Section 2(s).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Copyright, however, subsists only in an original work under Section 13(1)(a). Older English cases such as <em>Walter v. Lane<\/em> [1900] AC 539 and <em>University of London Press v. University Tutorial Press<\/em> [1916] 2 Ch 601 asked only whether the work came from the author and cost some labour or skill. This is the &#8220;sweat of the brow&#8221; approach. The Supreme Court moved away from it in <em>Eastern Book Company v. D.B. Modak<\/em> (2008) 1 SCC 1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In <em>Eastern Book Company<\/em>, the Supreme Court rejected the sweat of the brow test and required a minimal degree of creativity, meaning skill and judgement that is not trivial or merely mechanical.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This standard resembles the one in <em>Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co.<\/em>, 499 U.S. 340 (1991). In photography the creative choices are easy to find: the angle, framing, distance, light, exposure, staging and the moment chosen for the shutter (compare <em>Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony<\/em>, 111 U.S. 53 (1884)). Even a quick phone picture involves decisions about what to include and when to press the button, and that is usually enough.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-3-2-videos-as-cinematograph-films\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"32_Videos_as_Cinematograph_Films\"><\/span>3.2 Videos as Cinematograph Films<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A video clip, whether it is a documentary, a YouTube upload, a short reel, a story, CCTV footage or a personal recording, is a cinematograph film under Section 2(f).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The section defines the term as any work of visual recording that includes an accompanying sound recording, and it extends to works made by a process similar to cinematography, including video films.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 2(xxa), added in 2012, defines a visual recording as the recording in any medium, by any method, including electronic storage, of moving images or their representations, from which they can be perceived, reproduced or communicated.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 13(3)(a) says that copyright does not subsist in a film if a substantial part of it infringes the copyright in another work. A person who records an original video on a personal device, however, acquires copyright from the moment the file is stored, with no registration needed. This follows the Berne Convention rule against formalities in Article 5(2).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-3-3-duration\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"33_Duration\"><\/span>3.3 Duration<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Copyright in a photograph and in a cinematograph film lasts for sixty years from the beginning of the calendar year following the year of publication (Sections 25 and 26).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A recording made years ago may therefore still be protected, which matters when an old photograph resurfaces online.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-4-authorship-and-the-depicted-subject\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"4_Authorship_and_the_Depicted_Subject\"><\/span>4. Authorship and the Depicted Subject<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The biggest source of confusion in this area is that the creator of a visual work and the person whose image appears in it are different people in law. Many believe that anyone whose face or body appears in a photograph owns it. Under Indian copyright law, that is not so.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-4-1-statutory-authorship-under-section-2-d\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"41_Statutory_Authorship_Under_Section_2d\"><\/span>4.1 Statutory Authorship Under Section 2(d)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 17 says that the author of a work is its first owner, subject to specific exceptions. The Act defines authorship in operational terms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For a photograph, Section 2(d)(iv) names &#8220;the person taking the photograph&#8221;. For a cinematograph film, Section 2(d)(v) names the producer, and Section 2(uu) defines the producer as the person who takes the initiative and responsibility for making the work.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Nothing in the Act makes the person who sits for a picture, or who is recorded without noticing, an author. So if A points a phone at B and takes a candid photograph or records an intimate video, the copyright belongs to A. B has no copyright in it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If A then uploads or sells the material without B&#8217;s consent, B cannot sue A for copyright infringement, because B is not the owner.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-4-2-the-selfie-author-and-subject-in-one-person\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"42_The_Selfie_Author_and_Subject_in_One_Person\"><\/span>4.2 The Selfie: Author and Subject in One Person<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The position changes when a person records themselves. In a selfie or a self-recorded video, the same person holds the phone, frames the shot and starts the recording. That person is the author under Section 2(d)(iv) and also the subject, so Section 17 makes them the owner.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If that person sends a private selfie to A in confidence and A later leaks or posts it, A may face a claim for breach of confidence and criminal charges.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A has also infringed copyright under Section 51, because the owner never permitted the copying or the communication to the public. This is why a victim who took the picture has a wider set of remedies than a victim whose picture was taken by someone else.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-4-3-commissioned-photographs-section-17-b\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"43_Commissioned_Photographs_Section_17b\"><\/span>4.3 Commissioned Photographs: Section 17(b)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 17(b) is a major exception to the rule that the photographer is the first owner. Where a photograph is taken, or a portrait drawn, or a cinematograph film made, for valuable consideration at the instance of another person, that person is the first owner in the absence of a contrary agreement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This has practical consequences:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Wedding and event photography.<\/strong> A family that pays a studio to film a wedding is the first owner of the copyright. If the studio later uses the couple&#8217;s private footage or bridal portraits in advertising without written permission, it infringes the clients&#8217; copyright.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Paid shoots.<\/strong> A model or influencer who pays a photographer to shoot a portfolio owns the copyright under Section 17(b). In a collaboration or &#8220;trade for portfolio&#8221; shoot where no money changes hands, Section 17(b) does not apply and the photographer remains the first owner, unless the parties agree otherwise.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-4-4-employment-sections-17-a-and-17-c\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"44_Employment_Sections_17a_and_17c\"><\/span>4.4 Employment: Sections 17(a) and 17(c)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Two further provisions deal with employed photographers. Under Section 17(a), where an author employed by the proprietor of a newspaper, magazine or similar periodical makes a work for publication in it under a contract of service, the proprietor is the first owner for that purpose, absent an agreement to the contrary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Under Section 17(c), a work made in the course of employment under a contract of service or apprenticeship belongs to the employer in the same way.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A press photographer&#8217;s pictures of public figures or private citizens are therefore generally owned by the publication. If a third party copies and shares them online, it is the publication that holds the right to sue.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-4-5-the-platform-licence\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"45_The_Platform_Licence\"><\/span>4.5 The Platform Licence<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One more point deserves mention. When an owner posts a photograph on a social platform, the terms of service usually grant the platform and its users a limited licence to use and share the post through the platform&#8217;s own tools, such as a &#8220;share&#8221; or &#8220;repost&#8221; button.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Such terms generally do not allow users to download a picture and publish it elsewhere or use it commercially. A repost made through the platform&#8217;s feature may therefore be licensed, while a download and re-upload on another site is usually not.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The exact scope depends on the terms in force, so each case turns on the licence the owner has actually granted.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-5-the-anatomy-of-online-infringement-under-section-51\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"5_The_Anatomy_of_Online_Infringement_Under_Section_51\"><\/span>5. The Anatomy of Online Infringement Under Section 51<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 51 provides that copyright is infringed when a person, without a licence from the owner or the Registrar of Copyrights, or in breach of the conditions of a licence:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Does anything the exclusive right to do which belongs to the copyright owner [Section 51(a)(i)];<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Permits for profit any place to be used for communicating the work to the public, where that communication infringes copyright, unless the person was unaware and had no reasonable ground to believe it was an infringement [Section 51(a)(ii)]; or<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Makes for sale or hire, sells or hires, displays by way of trade, or distributes infringing copies, either for trade or to an extent that prejudices the owner, and also imports infringing copies into India [Section 51(b)].<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-5-1-the-exclusive-rights-in-section-14\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"51_The_Exclusive_Rights_in_Section_14\"><\/span>5.1 The Exclusive Rights in Section 14<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">To bring a case under Section 51(a)(i), the act complained of must fall within an exclusive right under Section 14. In online sharing, three groups of rights are mainly involved.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Right<\/th><th>Provision<\/th><th>How It Appears Online<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Reproduction and electronic storage<\/td><td>Section 14(c)(i) for photographs; Section 14(d)(i) for films<\/td><td>Downloading a picture or video, saving it on a phone, uploading it to a cloud server, creating cached copies on hosting servers.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Communication to the public<\/td><td>Section 14(c)(ii) for photographs; Section 14(d)(iii) for films<\/td><td>Posting, streaming or making the material available on social networks, video sites or large group chats.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Adaptation and use in other works<\/td><td>Section 14(c)(iv) and (v) for photographs<\/td><td>Cropping or editing a photograph, turning it into a meme, placing it in a film, or using it to train a generative AI model.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-5-2-communication-to-the-public-under-section-2-ff\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"52_%E2%80%9CCommunication_to_the_Public%E2%80%9D_Under_Section_2ff\"><\/span>5.2 &#8220;Communication to the Public&#8221; Under Section 2(ff)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 2(ff) defines communication to the public as making a work or performance available for being seen, heard or otherwise enjoyed by the public, directly or by any means of display or diffusion other than issuing copies, regardless of whether any member of the public actually sees or hears it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The definition therefore covers transmission over a computer network.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The wording matters online. The owner does not have to prove that thousands of people actually viewed or downloaded the material. The act is complete once the file is uploaded and made available on an accessible server, an open profile, a public channel or a public group.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-5-3-where-the-law-draws-the-line\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"53_Where_the_Law_Draws_the_Line\"><\/span>5.3 Where the Law Draws the Line<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Online sharing takes several technical forms, and the law treats them differently.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 id=\"h-direct-upload-and-mirroring\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Direct_Upload_and_Mirroring\"><\/span>Direct Upload and Mirroring<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Downloading a picture from the owner&#8217;s profile and uploading it to one&#8217;s own account is both reproduction and communication to the public. This is the standard case of infringement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 id=\"h-screenshots\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Screenshots\"><\/span>Screenshots<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A screenshot makes a copy of the image in the device&#8217;s memory. If it is then published, it is both reproduction and communication to the public.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 id=\"h-hyperlinks-framing-and-embedding\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Hyperlinks_Framing_and_Embedding\"><\/span>Hyperlinks, Framing and Embedding<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A plain hyperlink to a lawfully accessible page is generally not treated as infringement abroad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Court of Justice of the European Union held in <em>Svensson v. Retriever Sverige AB<\/em> (C-466\/12) that linking to freely available material is not a new communication to a new public.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It reached a similar view on embedding by framing in <em>BestWater International v. Mebes<\/em> (C-348\/13). In <em>GS Media v. Sanoma<\/em> (C-160\/15), it said that linking to material the linker knows, or should know, was posted unlawfully can be a communication to the public.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Indian courts have not yet settled the question, and the wide wording of Section 2(ff) may lead to a stricter approach than the European one.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 52(1)(c) also offers some protection to those who provide links or integration through transient or incidental storage, but only until the owner complains. After a written complaint, the person responsible must stop facilitating access for twenty-one days unless a court orders otherwise, and must continue to do so if a court order is received.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 id=\"h-private-messaging\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Private_Messaging\"><\/span>Private Messaging<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Sending an image to one person in a private chat does not usually amount to communication to the public under Section 2(ff). Circulating it in a large group, broadcast channel or open forum does.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-6-defences-and-the-limits-of-fair-dealing\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"6_Defences_and_the_Limits_of_Fair_Dealing\"><\/span>6. Defences and the Limits of Fair Dealing<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Once an unauthorised copy or communication is shown, defendants nearly always rely on fair dealing.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">India has no open-ended &#8220;fair use&#8221; doctrine like Section 107 of the United States Copyright Act. It has a closed list of purposes in Section 52.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-6-1-the-closed-list-in-section-52-1-a\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"61_The_Closed_List_in_Section_521a\"><\/span>6.1 The Closed List in Section 52(1)(a)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Under Section 52(1)(a), a fair dealing with a work, other than a computer programme, is not an infringement only if it is for one of these purposes:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Private or personal use, including research;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Criticism or review, whether of that work or of any other work; or<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The reporting of current events and current affairs, including the reporting of a lecture delivered in public.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If the sharing falls under none of these heads, the inquiry ends there. A court cannot create an exemption outside Section 52.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Note also that &#8220;private or personal use&#8221; does not stretch to publishing a picture on a public profile or in a large group.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-6-2-is-the-dealing-fair\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"62_Is_the_Dealing_Fair\"><\/span>6.2 Is the Dealing Fair?<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Even if the purpose fits a listed head, the dealing must still be fair.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Indian courts look to the test discussed by Lord Denning in <em>Hubbard v. Vosper<\/em> [1972] 2 QB 84, applied in <em>Blackwood &amp; Sons Ltd. v. A.N. Parasuraman<\/em> AIR 1959 Mad 410 and in <em>University of Oxford v. Rameshwari Photocopy Service<\/em>, 2016 SCC OnLine Del 6229.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The questions include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>How much was taken:<\/strong> A photograph is a single unit and is nearly always copied in full, which makes a fair dealing defence hard to sustain.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Purpose and character of the use:<\/strong> Use for money, follower growth or advertising weighs heavily against fairness.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Effect on the market:<\/strong> If the copy replaces the creator&#8217;s own publication or reduces licensing income, it points against fairness.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-6-3-public-interest-and-public-curiosity\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"63_Public_Interest_and_Public_Curiosity\"><\/span>6.3 Public Interest and Public Curiosity<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A person who posts a leaked video or a candid photograph often argues that it has gone viral and that sharing it is &#8220;reporting current affairs&#8221;.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The argument confuses what the public is curious about with what is in the public interest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Supreme Court in <em>R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu<\/em> (1994) 6 SCC 632 recognised a citizen&#8217;s right to protect the privacy of the self and family and held that publication of private matters without consent is actionable, with limited exceptions such as matters of public record.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Viral status alone does not turn a private image into news. Circulating private visual material without consent cannot be justified as fair dealing merely because it attracts attention.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-7-intermediary-liability-and-safe-harbour\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"7_Intermediary_Liability_and_Safe_Harbour\"><\/span>7. Intermediary Liability and Safe Harbour<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Most unauthorised visual content lives on platforms such as Instagram, X, YouTube, Reddit, Google Drive and Telegram. For that reason the liability of intermediaries is the first line of enforcement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-7-1-section-79-of-the-it-act-2000\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"71_Section_79_of_the_IT_Act_2000\"><\/span>7.1 Section 79 of the IT Act, 2000<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 79 protects intermediaries from liability for third-party content, but only on conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Under Section 79(2), the intermediary&#8217;s role must be limited to providing access to a communication system, and it must not initiate the transmission, choose the receiver or modify the content.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Under Section 79(3)(b), the protection is lost if the intermediary, after receiving actual knowledge or being notified by the appropriate government or its agency that its resource is being used for an unlawful act, fails to remove or disable access to the material expeditiously without tampering with the evidence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-7-2-shreya-singhal-and-myspace\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"72_Shreya_Singhal_and_Myspace\"><\/span>7.2 <em>Shreya Singhal<\/em> and <em>Myspace<\/em><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In <em>Shreya Singhal v. Union of India<\/em> (2015) 5 SCC 1, the Supreme Court read down Section 79(3)(b) so that private platforms would not act as judges of speech.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It held that &#8220;actual knowledge&#8221; means knowledge from a court order or a notification by the appropriate government agency.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In copyright cases, the Delhi High Court took a practical view in <em>Myspace Inc. v. Super Cassettes Industries Ltd.<\/em>, (2017) 236 DLT 478 (DB).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It held that where the owner gives specific notice identifying infringing material by its exact location, the intermediary cannot insist on a court order for every URL and must take reasonable steps to remove the content.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The court also read Section 79 alongside the proviso to Section 81 of the IT Act, which preserves the rights of copyright owners under the Copyright Act.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-7-3-the-intermediary-guidelines-rules-2021\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"73_The_Intermediary_Guidelines_Rules_2021\"><\/span>7.3 The Intermediary Guidelines Rules, 2021<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 place due diligence duties on intermediaries:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Rule 3(1)(b)(iv):<\/strong> Requires intermediaries to publish rules telling users not to upload material that infringes any patent, trademark, copyright or other proprietary right.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Rule 3(2)(b):<\/strong> Deals with complaints about content that exposes a person&#8217;s private areas, shows the person in full or partial nudity, shows a sexual act, or involves impersonation including morphed images. The intermediary must take all reasonable and practicable measures to remove or disable access to it within twenty-four hours of the complaint.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The second rule gives victims a fast remedy that does not depend on owning the copyright, and it closes some of the delay that comes with obtaining a court injunction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-7-4-dynamic-injunctions\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"74_Dynamic_Injunctions\"><\/span>7.4 Dynamic Injunctions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Infringers often re-upload the same material under new links or on mirror sites.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In <em>UTV Software Communication Ltd. v. 1337X.TO<\/em>, 2019 SCC OnLine Del 8002, the Delhi High Court granted a dynamic injunction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Instead of filing a new suit for each new link, the owner can bring proof of mirror sites before the court, usually through the Joint Registrar, and have the original blocking order extended to the new domains.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-8-copyright-privacy-and-personality-rights\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"8_Copyright_Privacy_and_Personality_Rights\"><\/span>8. Copyright, Privacy and Personality Rights<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The clash between copyright and privacy is sharpest in cases of non-consensual sharing. Copyright treats the picture as the author&#8217;s property, and that can produce unfair results for a depicted person who owns nothing.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-8-1-the-constitutional-and-statutory-setting\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"81_The_Constitutional_and_Statutory_Setting\"><\/span>8.1 The Constitutional and Statutory Setting<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In <em>Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India<\/em> (2017) 10 SCC 1, a nine-judge bench held that privacy is a fundamental right under Article 21, including control over personal information and the way one&#8217;s identity is presented.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When a picture of a person is posted without consent, two separate injuries may occur. The first is a proprietary injury, the infringement of copyright, which is suffered by whoever made the image. The second is a dignitary injury, the violation of privacy, suffered by the person whose body, activity or likeness was exposed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Where the victim took the picture, both claims are in the victim&#8217;s hands. Where someone else took it, the victim cannot sue for copyright infringement and must rely on other grounds:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The civil action for breach of confidence;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The tort of invasion of privacy and claims for compensation;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Section 66E of the IT Act, which punishes capturing, publishing or transmitting an image of a person&#8217;s private area without consent, and Section 67A, which punishes publishing sexually explicit material electronically;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Section 77 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 on voyeurism, which now covers what was dealt with under Section 354C of the Indian Penal Code.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 should also be mentioned. It regulates the processing of digital personal data, but it excludes personal data processed by an individual for a personal or domestic purpose. Its usefulness against an ordinary individual who shares a picture is therefore limited, although it may apply to businesses and platforms that process such data.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-8-2-personality-rights\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"82_Personality_Rights\"><\/span>8.2 Personality Rights<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Indian courts have protected a person&#8217;s name, image and likeness against commercial misuse. <em>Titan Industries Ltd. v. Ramkumar Jewellers<\/em>, 2012 (50) PTC 486 (Del), protected the image of well-known persons used in advertising without consent, and in <em>Anil Kapoor v. Simply Life India<\/em> (Delhi High Court, 2023) the court granted relief against misuse of a celebrity&#8217;s identity, including through artificial intelligence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These cases have mostly involved public figures and commercial exploitation. Whether ordinary private persons can use the same route for non-commercial sharing is a developing question.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-8-3-moral-rights-under-section-57\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"83_Moral_Rights_Under_Section_57\"><\/span>8.3 Moral Rights Under Section 57<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Even after an author has assigned the economic rights, Section 57 gives the author the right to claim authorship and the right to restrain or claim damages for any distortion, mutilation, modification or other act in relation to the work that would harm the author&#8217;s honour or reputation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In <em>Amar Nath Sehgal v. Union of India<\/em>, 2005 (30) PTC 253 (Del), the Delhi High Court recognised these rights as integral to an author&#8217;s relationship with the work.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Photographs and videos are often cropped, altered, turned into mocking memes or changed with AI filters. If such treatment prejudices the creator&#8217;s honour or reputation, Section 57 gives the creator a direct claim to stop it and to seek damages.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-9-remedies-and-enforcement\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"9_Remedies_and_Enforcement\"><\/span>9. Remedies and Enforcement<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Indian law offers civil, criminal and administrative remedies, which can be used together.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-9-1-civil-remedies-sections-55-58-and-62\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"91_Civil_Remedies_Sections_55_58_and_62\"><\/span>9.1 Civil Remedies (Sections 55, 58 and 62)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 55 gives the owner remedies that include injunctions, damages or an account of profits. Section 58 allows the owner to claim delivery up of infringing copies and plates. Under Section 62(2), a suit may be filed in the court within whose jurisdiction the plaintiff resides or carries on business, which is useful for online infringement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In urgent cases plaintiffs commonly seek:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Ex Parte Ad Interim Injunctions:<\/strong> Against uploaders and platforms, to stop further spread before formal notice is served.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>John Doe or Ashok Kumar Orders:<\/strong> Against unknown or pseudonymous persons, directing internet and telecom service providers to block access.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Disclosure Orders:<\/strong> Requiring intermediaries to give registration details, login IP addresses and bank details of accounts that profit from the infringing content.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-9-2-criminal-remedies-section-63\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"92_Criminal_Remedies_Section_63\"><\/span>9.2 Criminal Remedies (Section 63)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Section 63 punishes knowing infringement or abetment of infringement with imprisonment for not less than six months and up to three years, and a fine of not less than fifty thousand rupees and up to two lakh rupees.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In <em>Knit Pro International v. State of NCT of Delhi<\/em>, 2022 SCC OnLine SC 668, the Supreme Court held that the offence under Section 63 is cognizable and non-bailable. This allows the police to register a case and arrest without a warrant.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Courts should still use the power carefully so that it is not used to harass ordinary users who share pictures innocently.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-10-comparative-perspectives\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"10_Comparative_Perspectives\"><\/span>10. Comparative Perspectives<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Different jurisdictions have adopted different approaches to copyright infringement, online content sharing and the protection of privacy. The following examples illustrate these approaches.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-united-states\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"United_States\"><\/span>United States<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 512, gives platforms a safe harbour if they remove material expeditiously after receiving a compliant notice, and the owner can also demand the identity of the uploader.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Fair use under 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 107 is a flexible test with four factors, unlike India&#8217;s closed list. The United States has also moved to deal with non-consensual intimate images separately from copyright.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A federal law passed in 2025, the TAKE IT DOWN Act, requires covered platforms to remove such images after notice, which shows a trend towards privacy-based removal rights that do not depend on copyright ownership.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-european-union\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"European_Union\"><\/span>European Union<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Court of Justice has developed the concept of &#8220;communication to the public&#8221; through cases such as <em>Svensson<\/em>, <em>BestWater<\/em> and <em>GS Media<\/em>, focusing on whether a &#8220;new public&#8221; is reached and whether the person knew the content was unlawful.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (2019\/790) also makes large content-sharing platforms responsible for obtaining licences or acting against unlicensed content.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-united-kingdom\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"United_Kingdom\"><\/span>United Kingdom<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 once gave a person who commissioned a photograph or film for private and domestic purposes a right to stop its public issue (Section 85). That section was repealed in 2013.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The UK has since addressed intimate image abuse through criminal law, including new offences created by the Online Safety Act 2023.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These examples suggest that the depicted person&#8217;s interests are better protected through a dedicated right of removal and criminal offences than through copyright alone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-11-application-to-seven-digital-scenarios\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"11_Application_to_Seven_Digital_Scenarios\"><\/span>11. Application to Seven Digital Scenarios<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The application of Indian copyright law to photographs and videos depends on the nature of the digital activity, the purpose of use and the applicable statutory exceptions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The following table examines seven common digital scenarios and their likely legal consequences.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Digital Scenario<\/th><th>Copyright Analysis<\/th><th>Likely Legal Position<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Reposting a photograph from another user&#8217;s public profile<\/strong><\/td><td>Reproduction and communication to the public unless the platform&#8217;s own share tool is used under its licence.<\/td><td>Infringement if the repost is made outside the licence and without consent.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Taking and sharing a screenshot<\/strong><\/td><td>The screenshot is a copy; publishing it is communication to the public.<\/td><td>Infringement unless a Section 52 purpose applies and the dealing is fair.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Making a meme from someone&#8217;s photograph<\/strong><\/td><td>Adaptation under Section 14(c)(v); possible moral rights claim under Section 57.<\/td><td>Infringement unless criticism or review applies and the use is fair.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Leaking an intimate video or picture<\/strong><\/td><td>If the victim recorded it, copyright infringement plus privacy and criminal remedies. If a third party recorded it, no copyright claim for the victim.<\/td><td>Strongest remedies come from Section 66E, Section 67A, BNS Section 77 and Rule 3(2)(b).<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Linking to or embedding a photograph<\/strong><\/td><td>Plain linking is generally safe; framing is unsettled in India; Section 52(1)(c) gives limited protection.<\/td><td>Depends on the source&#8217;s lawfulness and the owner&#8217;s complaint.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Using a creator&#8217;s photograph in an influencer&#8217;s paid promotion<\/strong><\/td><td>Commercial use weighs against fair dealing.<\/td><td>Infringement unless licensed.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Scraping photographs to train an AI model<\/strong><\/td><td>Copying for training is reproduction; no clear Indian exception for it.<\/td><td>Unsettled in India; likely infringement if done without licence, and the point awaits judicial decision.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-conclusion-and-recommendations\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion_and_Recommendations\"><\/span>Conclusion and Recommendations<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Sharing photographs and videos online without consent sits where copyright, constitutional privacy and platform regulation meet. The paper has shown that such sharing is actionable copyright infringement in India when three conditions are met together:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The material is an artistic work (a photograph) under Section 2(c) or a cinematograph film (a video) under Section 2(f), and is original and fixed.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The unauthorised act breaches an exclusive right under Section 14, in particular reproduction [Sections 14(c)(i) and 14(d)(i)] or communication to the public [Sections 14(c)(ii), 14(d)(iii) and 2(ff)].<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The sharing does not fall within the closed exceptions of Section 52(1)(a) or another exception in Section 52.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The analysis also exposes a structural gap. When a third party takes an intimate or private photograph, the person shown has no copyright under Section 17 and cannot use copyright takedown procedures. The following reforms are suggested.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-give-the-depicted-person-a-right-to-stop-publication\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Give_the_Depicted_Person_a_Right_to_Stop_Publication\"><\/span>Give the Depicted Person a Right to Stop Publication<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Parliament could add a provision protecting the subject of a private, domestic or commissioned photograph or film against its issue or communication to the public, whoever holds the copyright. The United Kingdom&#8217;s old Section 85 is a cautionary example, because it was repealed in 2013 and gave the right to the commissioner and not to the subject. A better model would be a standalone right for depicted persons, particularly for intimate images, coupled with criminal penalties.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-unify-takedown-channels\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Unify_Takedown_Channels\"><\/span>Unify Takedown Channels<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Takedown under the 2021 Rules should be aligned with copyright notices. A single national grievance interface could allow a victim to raise privacy and copyright complaints together, and platforms could be required to use hash-matching tools such as PhotoDNA to block identical re-uploads.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-keep-fair-dealing-firm\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Keep_Fair_Dealing_Firm\"><\/span>Keep Fair Dealing Firm<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Courts should refuse to widen Section 52 to cover unauthorised circulation of personal media. Viral popularity and public curiosity are not the same as public interest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-clarify-the-law-on-framing-and-ai-scraping\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Clarify_the_Law_on_Framing_and_AI_Scraping\"><\/span>Clarify the Law on Framing and AI Scraping<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Judicial or legislative guidance on in-line linking, embedding and the use of photographs to train AI systems would give creators and platforms more certainty.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-references-and-bibliography\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"References_and_Bibliography\"><\/span>References and Bibliography<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The following references provide the statutory, judicial and academic foundation for the discussion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-a-statutes-and-rules\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"A_Statutes_and_Rules\"><\/span>A. Statutes and Rules<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The Copyright Act, 1957 (Act No. 14 of 1957), as amended by the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Information Technology Act, 2000 (Act No. 21 of 2000).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (United Kingdom).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 512, and 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 107 (United States).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-b-cases\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"B_Cases\"><\/span>B. Cases<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><em>Amar Nath Sehgal v. Union of India<\/em>, 2005 (30) PTC 253 (Del).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Anil Kapoor v. Simply Life India<\/em>, Delhi High Court (2023).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Blackwood &amp; Sons Ltd. v. A.N. Parasuraman<\/em>, AIR 1959 Mad 410.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>BestWater International GmbH v. Mebes<\/em>, Case C-348\/13 (CJEU, 2014).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony<\/em>, 111 U.S. 53 (1884).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Eastern Book Company v. D.B. Modak<\/em>, (2008) 1 SCC 1.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co.<\/em>, 499 U.S. 340 (1991).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>GS Media BV v. Sanoma Media Netherlands BV<\/em>, Case C-160\/15 (CJEU, 2016).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Hubbard v. Vosper<\/em>, [1972] 2 QB 84.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Indian Performing Right Society v. Eastern Indian Motion Pictures Association<\/em>, (1977) 2 SCC 149.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India<\/em>, (2017) 10 SCC 1.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Knit Pro International v. State of NCT of Delhi<\/em>, 2022 SCC OnLine SC 668.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Myspace Inc. v. Super Cassettes Industries Ltd.<\/em>, (2017) 236 DLT 478 (DB).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu<\/em>, (1994) 6 SCC 632.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Shreya Singhal v. Union of India<\/em>, (2015) 5 SCC 1.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Svensson v. Retriever Sverige AB<\/em>, Case C-466\/12 (CJEU, 2014).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>The Chancellor, Masters &amp; Scholars of the University of Oxford v. Rameshwari Photocopy Service<\/em>, 2016 SCC OnLine Del 6229.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Titan Industries Ltd. v. Ramkumar Jewellers<\/em>, 2012 (50) PTC 486 (Del).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>University of London Press v. University Tutorial Press<\/em>, [1916] 2 Ch 601.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>UTV Software Communication Ltd. v. 1337X.TO<\/em>, 2019 SCC OnLine Del 8002.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Walter v. Lane<\/em>, [1900] AC 539.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-c-books\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"C_Books\"><\/span>C. Books<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><em>Copinger and Skone James on Copyright<\/em> (18th edn, Sweet &amp; Maxwell 2021).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>P. Narayanan, <em>Intellectual Property Law<\/em> (6th edn, Eastern Law House 2020).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>B.L. Wadhera, <em>Law Relating to Intellectual Property<\/em> (5th edn, Universal Law Publishing 2014).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Written By: Shivani Ben<\/strong>, B.Com. LL.B. (Hons.), 4th Year (7th Semester)<br>Mangalayatan University, Jabalpur<br><br><strong>Submitted To: Dr. Pooja Agrawal<\/strong>, Faculty, Intellectual Property Rights<br>Mangalayatan University, Jabalpur<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-yoast-seo-related-links yoast-seo-related-links\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/examining-the-ai-image-maze-who-owns-your-digital-double\/\">Examining the AI Image Maze: Who Owns Your Digital Double?<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/how-to-prove-adultery-in-india-evidence-court\/\">How to Prove Adultery in India: Evidence That Can Stand Up in Court<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/forensic-photography-and-videography-crime-scene-evidence\/\">Capturing the Truth: The Role of Forensic Photography and Videography in Criminal Investigation<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/types-of-divorce-in-india-under-hindu-marriage-act-1955\/\">Types of Divorce in India under Hindu Marriage Act, 1955<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/law-on-dissemination-of-image-of-the-accused\/\">Law on Dissemination of Image of the Accused<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Abstract Social media platforms, algorithmic feeds and messaging apps have changed how photographs and videos are made, passed around and monetised. They have also created friction between property rights in creative work, the privacy and dignity of the people who appear in that work, and the rules that govern online platforms. Many people assume that<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1983,"featured_media":35296,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"two_page_speed":[],"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"_joinchat":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[9212],"tags":[3095,28],"class_list":["post-35295","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-copyright-law","tag-copyright-law","tag-top-news"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v28.8 (Yoast SEO v28.8) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-premium-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Online Sharing of Photographs and Videos Without Consent: When Does It Constitute Copyright Infringement under Indian Law? 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