{"id":35429,"date":"2026-11-06T07:05:48","date_gmt":"2026-11-06T07:05:48","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/?p=35429"},"modified":"2026-11-06T07:10:47","modified_gmt":"2026-11-06T07:10:47","slug":"ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/","title":{"rendered":"Ancient Indian Democracy: History of Elections and Representative Governance"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h1 id=\"h-evolution-of-electoral-practices-in-ancient-india-a-historical-study-of-representative-institutions-and-participatory-governance\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Evolution_of_Electoral_Practices_in_Ancient_India_A_Historical_Study_of_Representative_Institutions_and_Participatory_Governance\"><\/span>Evolution of Electoral Practices in Ancient India: A Historical Study of Representative Institutions and Participatory Governance<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h1>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-1-introduction\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"1_Introduction\"><\/span>1. Introduction<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">India has a rich history of electoral practices dating back to various political and administrative institutions. Ancient India saw various forms of governance such as monarchies, republics, councils and various local bodies. These bodies provided a space for people to participate and debate.<\/p><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_89 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-1'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Evolution_of_Electoral_Practices_in_Ancient_India_A_Historical_Study_of_Representative_Institutions_and_Participatory_Governance\" >Evolution of Electoral Practices in Ancient India: A Historical Study of Representative Institutions and Participatory Governance<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-2' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#1_Introduction\" >1. Introduction<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#2_Historical_Background_to_Electoral_Practices_in_Ancient_India\" >2. Historical Background to Electoral Practices in Ancient India<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#The_Vedic_Period_and_Political_Institutions\" >The Vedic Period and Political Institutions<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#The_Mahajanapadas_and_Gana-Sanghas\" >The Mahajanapadas and Gana-Sanghas<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Buddhist_Sangha_and_Voting_Practices\" >Buddhist Sangha and Voting Practices<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Local_Government_and_the_Chola_Period\" >Local Government and the Chola Period<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Overview_of_Political_and_Representative_Institutions\" >Overview of Political and Representative Institutions<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#3_Vedic_Councils_%E2%80%93_Sabha_and_Samiti\" >3. Vedic Councils \u2013 Sabha and Samiti<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#The_Sabha_Structure_and_Functions\" >The Sabha: Structure and Functions<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#The_Samiti_Structure_and_Political_Role\" >The Samiti: Structure and Political Role<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Selection_of_the_King_and_Historical_Debate\" >Selection of the King and Historical Debate<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Political_Significance_of_the_Sabha_and_Samiti\" >Political Significance of the Sabha and Samiti<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Republican_Institutions_During_the_Mahajanapada_Period\" >Republican Institutions During the Mahajanapada Period<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Important_Gana-Sanghas_in_Ancient_India\" >Important Gana-Sanghas in Ancient India<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-16\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#The_Role_of_Santhagara_Councils\" >The Role of Santhagara Councils<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-17\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Voting_Practices_in_the_Gana-Sanghas\" >Voting Practices in the Gana-Sanghas<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-18\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Political_Structure_and_Limitations_of_Republican_Institutions\" >Political Structure and Limitations of Republican Institutions<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-19\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Historical_Significance_of_the_Gana-Sanghas\" >Historical Significance of the Gana-Sanghas<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-20\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Voting_in_the_Buddhist_Sangha\" >Voting in the Buddhist Sangha<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-21\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#The_Salaka_Voting_System\" >The Salaka Voting System<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-22\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Three_Methods_of_Voting_in_the_Buddhist_Sangha\" >Three Methods of Voting in the Buddhist Sangha<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-23\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Majority_Decisions_in_the_Buddhist_Sangha\" >Majority Decisions in the Buddhist Sangha<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-24\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#The_Role_of_the_Salakagahapaka\" >The Role of the Salakagahapaka<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-25\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Historical_Significance_of_Buddhist_Voting_Practices\" >Historical Significance of Buddhist Voting Practices<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-26\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Electoral_Practices_During_the_Maurya_Post-Maurya_and_Gupta_Periods\" >Electoral Practices During the Maurya, Post-Maurya and Gupta Periods<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-27\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Maurya_Period\" >Maurya Period<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-28\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Post-Maurya_Period\" >Post-Maurya Period<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-29\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Gupta_Period\" >Gupta Period<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-30\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Comparison_of_Administrative_Practices\" >Comparison of Administrative Practices<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-31\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Development_of_Collective_Administration_in_India\" >Development of Collective Administration in India<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-32\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Local_Self_Government_During_the_Chola_Period_%E2%80%93_Kudavolai_System\" >Local Self Government During the Chola Period \u2013 Kudavolai System<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-33\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Village_Councils_and_Committees\" >Village Councils and Committees<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-34\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Kudavolai_System\" >Kudavolai System<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-35\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Qualifications\" >Qualifications<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-36\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Disqualifications\" >Disqualifications<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-37\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Historical_Significance_and_Limitations\" >Historical Significance and Limitations<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-38\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Decline_and_Transformation_of_Electoral_Institutions_During_the_Medieval_Period\" >Decline and Transformation of Electoral Institutions During the Medieval Period<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-39\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Changes_in_South_Indian_Village_Assemblies\" >Changes in South Indian Village Assemblies<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-40\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Decline_of_Chola_Political_Power\" >Decline of Chola Political Power<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-41\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Village_Administration_During_the_Delhi_Sultanate_and_Mughal_Periods\" >Village Administration During the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Periods<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-42\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Overall_Impact_of_the_Medieval_Period_on_Local_Self-Government\" >Overall Impact of the Medieval Period on Local Self-Government<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-43\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Critical_Analysis_and_Key_Findings\" >Critical Analysis and Key Findings<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-44\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Vedic_Sabha_and_Samiti\" >Vedic Sabha and Samiti<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-45\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Gana-Sanghas_of_the_Mahajanapada_Period\" >Gana-Sanghas of the Mahajanapada Period<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-46\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Buddhist_Sangha_and_Structured_Voting\" >Buddhist Sangha and Structured Voting<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-47\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Mauryan_Post-Mauryan_and_Gupta_Administration\" >Mauryan, Post-Mauryan and Gupta Administration<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-48\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Chola_Kudavolai_System\" >Chola Kudavolai System<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-49\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Overall_Historical_Assessment\" >Overall Historical Assessment<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-50\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#Conclusion\" >Conclusion<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-51\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#References\" >References<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-52\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#A_Primary_Sources\" >A. Primary Sources<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-53\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#B_Secondary_Sources_%E2%80%93_Books\" >B. Secondary Sources \u2013 Books<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-54\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#C_Secondary_Sources_%E2%80%93_Articles_and_Research_Works\" >C. Secondary Sources \u2013 Articles and Research Works<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-55\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/ancient-indian-democracy-history-of-elections-and-representative-governance\/#D_Reference_Materials\" >D. Reference Materials<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Vedic texts mention two main councils; the Sabha and the Samiti. During the Mahajanapada period there were certain political communities who practised forms of a collective government. These communities were known as Gana-Sanghas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Buddhist texts also show how the Sangha had clear processes which included voting using Salaka&#8217;s. However, this cannot be compared to a modern electoral system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A clear example of a local system to elect people in an organised way comes from the Kudavolai system during the Chola period. This is mentioned in the Uttaramerur inscriptions from the tenth century CE. This gave clear guidelines on how to select members of the village committee, plus also what qualifications and disqualifications were needed. This gives clear evidence of local government in South India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This article will look at how these practices developed over time. It will look at the processes used, type of institution and any limits.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There were often limits on who could vote due to their social status, property and if they were part of a certain community. However, it is important to remember that the ancient Indian electoral practices are not exactly the same as our modern practices of universal suffrage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Instead, we can see how the people of the Indian subcontinent had diverse ways of practising collective government and electing representatives.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-2-historical-background-to-electoral-practices-in-ancient-india\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"2_Historical_Background_to_Electoral_Practices_in_Ancient_India\"><\/span>2. Historical Background to Electoral Practices in Ancient India<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ancient India had varying political systems. Monarchies were common throughout Ancient India; however, there were certain communities who practised a collective government. This is evident from the Vedic period.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-vedic-period-and-political-institutions\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Vedic_Period_and_Political_Institutions\"><\/span>The Vedic Period and Political Institutions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Sabha and Samiti are mentioned in the Vedic texts. Despite the uncertainty of what the exact composition and powers were, they are generally seen as a consultative body. This shows that political power was not held solely by the ruler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-mahajanapadas-and-gana-sanghas\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Mahajanapadas_and_Gana-Sanghas\"><\/span>The Mahajanapadas and Gana-Sanghas<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">During the sixteen Mahajanapada period (around the sixth century BCE) there were several different Mahajanapadas which were monarchies. However, there were certain political communities who practised a non-monarchy. These communities were known as Gana-Sanghas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These communities practised a collective government. This meant members of the ruling community participated in political discussions. This was practised by communities such as the Licchavis, Sakyas and Mallas. However, only a set group of people were allowed to participate.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-buddhist-sangha-and-voting-practices\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Buddhist_Sangha_and_Voting_Practices\"><\/span>Buddhist Sangha and Voting Practices<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Buddhist texts tell us that there were clear rules to follow when having meetings. In the Vinaya Pitaka it mentions that there were different voting practices in the Buddhist Sangha.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">They used voting tickets known as Salaka. This shows there was a clear process to follow for collective decision-making; however, this was not part of the territory government.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-local-government-and-the-chola-period\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Local_Government_and_the_Chola_Period\"><\/span>Local Government and the Chola Period<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Local government during the later centuries included various officials, local bodies and corporate bodies during the Maurya and Gupta periods.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However, just because there was local government doesn&#8217;t mean that there were popular elections.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A clearer example comes from the Chola period. During this period there was a system in place to elect members of the local committee. This was known as the Kudavolai system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-overview-of-political-and-representative-institutions\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Overview_of_Political_and_Representative_Institutions\"><\/span>Overview of Political and Representative Institutions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Historical Period<\/th><th>Institution or System<\/th><th>Key Features<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Vedic Period<\/td><td>Sabha and Samiti<\/td><td>Consultative bodies that provided space for political discussion.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Mahajanapada Period<\/td><td>Gana-Sanghas<\/td><td>Collective government involving members of the ruling community.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Buddhist Period<\/td><td>Buddhist Sangha<\/td><td>Organised meetings and voting practices using Salaka.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Maurya and Gupta Periods<\/td><td>Local and Corporate Bodies<\/td><td>Local administration involving officials and various local bodies.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Chola Period<\/td><td>Kudavolai System<\/td><td>Organised selection of village committee members.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-3-vedic-councils-sabha-and-samiti\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"3_Vedic_Councils_%E2%80%93_Sabha_and_Samiti\"><\/span>3. Vedic Councils \u2013 Sabha and Samiti<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Vedic period shows some of the earliest literature evidence of collective political institutions. The Sabha and Samiti are mentioned in both the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These bodies were part of the political and social structure of the early Vedic communities. This shows that the king wasn&#8217;t the only one with political power.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-sabha-structure-and-functions\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Sabha_Structure_and_Functions\"><\/span>The Sabha: Structure and Functions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Sabha is generally seen as a smaller council made up of recognised members. This included elders and influential individuals from the community.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">They were used for debating and consulting. The Sabha is also mentioned in Vedic texts as being used for social occasions and legal matters.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The term Sabhasad meant someone who attended the Sabha. Unfortunately, we are unable to say definitively what the Sabha consisted of.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-samiti-structure-and-political-role\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Samiti_Structure_and_Political_Role\"><\/span>The Samiti: Structure and Political Role<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Samiti were commonly seen as a wider body of people. This was used for important political discussions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The relationship between the king and the Samiti was particularly important, as the texts show that the king was expected to keep the support and confidence of the Samiti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the Atharva Veda it mentions that the Sabha and Samiti were the two daughters of Prajapati.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-selection-of-the-king-and-historical-debate\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Selection_of_the_King_and_Historical_Debate\"><\/span>Selection of the King and Historical Debate<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Some historians have viewed the Samiti as being part of the selection process of the king. However, there isn&#8217;t clear evidence that every Vedic king was elected using a regular voting process.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There is also debate about the difference between the Sabha and Samiti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Jagdish Prasad Sharma mentions that &#8220;the nature, origin and functions of Sabha and Samiti have been interpreted differently because the Vedic texts do not give us the complete picture.&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-political-significance-of-the-sabha-and-samiti\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Political_Significance_of_the_Sabha_and_Samiti\"><\/span>Political Significance of the Sabha and Samiti<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Although these bodies were important, as they were used for consultation, they don&#8217;t show evidence of being a democratic system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">They do show how political power was held within a social structure. However, they shouldn&#8217;t be seen as a full democracy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">They were an early example of a collective government practised in an institution. This led to the development of Republican and local government institutions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-republican-institutions-during-the-mahajanapada-period\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Republican_Institutions_During_the_Mahajanapada_Period\"><\/span>Republican Institutions During the Mahajanapada Period<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">During the Mahajanapada period there were varying political systems in Northern India. There were several monarchies such as Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However, there were also communities who practised a non-monarchy. These communities were often known as Gana or Sangha. These are often referred to as Republican institutions, as they practised a collective government.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-important-gana-sanghas-in-ancient-india\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Important_Gana-Sanghas_in_Ancient_India\"><\/span>Important Gana-Sanghas in Ancient India<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Important Gana-Sanghas included the Licchavis from Vaishali, Sakyas from Kapilavastu, Mallas from Kushinara and Pava, and Koliyas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Vajji confederacy was particularly important, with the Licchavis being an influential part of their community.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These communities had councils where recognised members would discuss issues such as administration, legal, defence and relations with other political units.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-role-of-santhagara-councils\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Role_of_Santhagara_Councils\"><\/span>The Role of Santhagara Councils<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The council was often known as the Santhagara. This was an important body which allowed members of the community to participate in discussions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Buddhist texts mention there were officials associated with these communities. Some mention titles such as Raja, Uparaja and Senapati.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However, this doesn&#8217;t necessarily mean there was a traditional hereditary monarchy in place. The title Raja could also refer to a recognised member.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-voting-practices-in-the-gana-sanghas\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Voting_Practices_in_the_Gana-Sanghas\"><\/span>Voting Practices in the Gana-Sanghas<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The voting processes used by these institutions are important when looking at electoral practices.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Buddhist texts mention certain Gana-Sanghas used voting practices. The principle of Yebhuyyasik\u0101 (majority decision) is mentioned.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However, this was used by the Buddhist monks and not the Gana-Sanghas. The existence of councils can be backed up by historical evidence, but we cannot be sure of the exact voting processes used by every Republican community.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-political-structure-and-limitations-of-republican-institutions\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Political_Structure_and_Limitations_of_Republican_Institutions\"><\/span>Political Structure and Limitations of Republican Institutions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Despite being a collective government, these weren&#8217;t democratic. Political power was generally only held by members of certain ruling families\/clans.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Women, working class communities and others didn&#8217;t have equal political involvement. These republics were more like an oligarchy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-historical-significance-of-the-gana-sanghas\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Historical_Significance_of_the_Gana-Sanghas\"><\/span>Historical Significance of the Gana-Sanghas<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However, the Gana-Sanghas were an important step in the development of collective political institutions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">They show that there were non-monarchies in place. They had councils and collective decision-making.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">They are important from a historical perspective to show that there was another political structure in place.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-voting-in-the-buddhist-sangha\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Voting_in_the_Buddhist_Sangha\"><\/span>Voting in the Buddhist Sangha<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Buddhist Sangha provides us with important historical evidence of voting processes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Vinaya Pitaka (particularly the Cullavagga) tells us there were rules to follow when voting. This meant voting wasn&#8217;t done randomly, but there were processes in place to ensure fairness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-salaka-voting-system\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Salaka_Voting_System\"><\/span>The Salaka Voting System<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One important process was the use of Salaka&#8217;s. This meant voting tickets were used.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The monk who distributed and collected the voting tickets was known as the Salakagahapaka. This individual was appointed by the Sangha.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">They were expected to be unbiased and not let their desires, dislikes, ignorance or fear affect their decision. They also needed to know who had voted correctly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-three-methods-of-voting-in-the-buddhist-sangha\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Three_Methods_of_Voting_in_the_Buddhist_Sangha\"><\/span>Three Methods of Voting in the Buddhist Sangha<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There were three methods of voting mentioned in the Vinaya Pitaka. These included:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Gulhaka (Secret Voting):<\/strong> With the Gulhaka method voting tickets were given out with different opinions. The monks were told not to reveal their choices.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Sakannajappaka (Whispered Voting):<\/strong> With the Sakannajappaka method the voting official would whisper the options to each monk.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Vivataka (Open Voting):<\/strong> With the Vivataka method the votes could be openly cast.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The method used would depend on the situation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-majority-decisions-in-the-buddhist-sangha\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Majority_Decisions_in_the_Buddhist_Sangha\"><\/span>Majority Decisions in the Buddhist Sangha<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">An important aspect of this voting system was that they recognised the majority opinion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If there was a disagreement they could decide based on the majority vote. However, just because there was majority support does not mean all decisions were valid.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Vinaya stated there were rules to prevent unfair voting. This included decisions made unfairly, divided voting and situations likely to cause a divide in the Sangha.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-the-role-of-the-salakagahapaka\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Role_of_the_Salakagahapaka\"><\/span>The Role of the Salakagahapaka<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Salakagahapaka was an important figure. They were expected to be unbiased when collecting votes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The rules also state that voting could be rejected if it went against the principles of Dhamma. This shows that there was a concern for fairness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-historical-significance-of-buddhist-voting-practices\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Historical_Significance_of_Buddhist_Voting_Practices\"><\/span>Historical Significance of Buddhist Voting Practices<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is important historically as it shows there was an organised voting process.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Secret voting and decisions based on majority were used. However, the Buddhist Sangha was a religious and monastic community so shouldn&#8217;t be confused with voting for political positions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">They contributed to the history of electoral practices by developing formal voting processes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-electoral-practices-during-the-maurya-post-maurya-and-gupta-periods\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Electoral_Practices_During_the_Maurya_Post-Maurya_and_Gupta_Periods\"><\/span>Electoral Practices During the Maurya, Post-Maurya and Gupta Periods<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">During the Maurya, Post-Maurya and Gupta periods there were organised administrative institutions in various parts of the Indian sub-continent. There was increasing structure to the government. Officials were put in place to collect taxes, enforce law and order, trade, agriculture and local government. However, there isn&#8217;t clear evidence to show there was a consistent system of popular voting during these centuries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-maurya-period\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Maurya_Period\"><\/span>Maurya Period<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">During the Maurya Empire (approx. 321-185 BCE) administration was organised under the king. The Arthashastra written by Kautilya mentions there was an elaborate administrative system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This included:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Ministers<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Department heads<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Provincial officials<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Village officials<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The village was an important administrative unit. Usually an official known as the Gramika would be in charge. The village elders (Gramavriddhas) would also help with local issues.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Maurya administration recognised the importance of local institutions. However, there isn&#8217;t clear evidence to show the village headmen were regularly elected by the villagers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The officials were closely linked to the king. The inscriptions of Ashoka mention officials such as Rajukas, Pradeshikas and Yuktas. This shows there was organised administration but limited local involvement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-post-maurya-period\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Post-Maurya_Period\"><\/span>Post-Maurya Period<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">After the decline of the Maurya empire there were several regional kingdoms and powers. During the Post-Maurya period there were increasing local economic institutions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This included:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Merchant groups<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Artisan groups<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Other corporate bodies<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Guilds were common during this time and were often known as Shrenis. These often had their own rules and regulations. They could hold power over issues involving their members.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This shows there were various corporate bodies however this doesn&#8217;t automatically mean they practised electoral democracy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There is evidence to show there were organised associations and collective management however there isn&#8217;t enough evidence to show they had a consistent voting system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-gupta-period\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Gupta_Period\"><\/span>Gupta Period<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">During the Gupta period (approx. 4 th-6 th Century CE) there was evidence of local administration bodies. The Gupta inscriptions mention various administrative bodies and officials.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Damodarpur copper plate inscriptions from Bengal mention the existence of a district and village administration.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The district had important representatives such as:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Nagarashreshthi:<\/strong> Main merchant.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Sarthavaha:<\/strong> Head of merchants\/caravans.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Prathama Kulika:<\/strong> Main artisan.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Prathama Kayastha:<\/strong> Main scribe.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Various village elders and officials would be involved in administration. Bodies such as the Ashtakuladhikarana are mentioned.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">We aren&#8217;t entirely sure what these bodies consisted of however they show there was some decentralisation. State officials worked with influential members of the local community.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Gupta period is important as there was increasing local involvement in administration. However just because there were representatives in administration doesn&#8217;t mean they were elected by the people. Evidence shows there was more involvement from recognised local elites.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-comparison-of-administrative-practices\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Comparison_of_Administrative_Practices\"><\/span>Comparison of Administrative Practices<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Historical Period<\/th><th>Administrative Features<\/th><th>Local Involvement<\/th><th>Evidence of Electoral Practices<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Maurya Period<\/td><td>Centralised administration under the king, with ministers and provincial and village officials.<\/td><td>Village elders and local officials participated in administration.<\/td><td>No clear evidence of regular elections of village headmen.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Post-Maurya Period<\/td><td>Regional kingdoms, merchant groups, artisan groups and corporate bodies.<\/td><td>Guilds (Shrenis) had their own rules and collective management.<\/td><td>Insufficient evidence of a consistent voting system.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Gupta Period<\/td><td>District and village administration involving recognised local representatives.<\/td><td>Influential local elites and village elders participated in administration.<\/td><td>No clear evidence that administrative representatives were elected by the people.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-development-of-collective-administration-in-india\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Development_of_Collective_Administration_in_India\"><\/span>Development of Collective Administration in India<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Overall during the Maurya, Post-Maurya and Gupta periods there was development of administration. The Maurya system was centred around a centralised administration however later periods show increased involvement from local and corporate bodies. This contributed to the history of collective administration in India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-local-self-government-during-the-chola-period-kudavolai-system\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Local_Self_Government_During_the_Chola_Period_%E2%80%93_Kudavolai_System\"><\/span>Local Self Government During the Chola Period \u2013 Kudavolai System<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Chola period is an important part of the history of local self government in South India. The Chola rulers created an organised system of village administration. Local councils were an important part of administration.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The most valuable evidence comes from the Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka Chola I. These inscriptions (approx. 919CE and 921CE) give details about how people were selected to be part of the village committees. They mention the qualifications, disqualifications and selection process of the Kudavolai system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-village-councils-and-committees\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Village_Councils_and_Committees\"><\/span>Village Councils and Committees<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Chola administration had various local bodies. The Sabha was a council run by the Brahmins. The Ur was a council run by the general farming community of the village. These bodies were responsible for land, irrigation, taxation, public works and other local issues.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Sabha of Uttaramerur had various specialised committees. These were known as the Variyams. The inscriptions mention various committees such as the Samvatsara Variyam (annual committee), Eri Variyam (tank committee) and Totta Variyam (garden committee). This allowed the village council to delegate responsibility to selected individuals. This was particularly important in an agrarian society.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-kudavolai-system\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Kudavolai_System\"><\/span>Kudavolai System<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Kudavolai system involved using a pot ticket system. This meant the names of eligible candidates were written on palm leaf tickets and put into a pot. These were then drawn in a public meeting to decide who would be on the village committees.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Uttaramerur inscriptions mention the village was split into thirty wards (Kudumbus). Candidates were nominated from these wards. A young boy was responsible for drawing the tickets. Once the names had been drawn they were announced.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This wasn&#8217;t a free for all voting system. It involved nomination, confirmation of eligibility and random selection. This was to control who was selected to be on the committees.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-qualifications\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Qualifications\"><\/span>Qualifications<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There were specific requirements to be part of the village committees. The Uttaramerur inscriptions mention you needed to own a certain amount of taxable land, a house built on your site and be within the correct age range. You also needed knowledge of the Vedas. The inscriptions also stress the importance of good behaviour and managing administration.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-disqualifications\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Disqualifications\"><\/span>Disqualifications<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There were certain people who couldn&#8217;t be part of the committees. This included those who had previously been on committees, failed to provide accounts and were involved in certain offences.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The fact people couldn&#8217;t be on the committees if they hadn&#8217;t provided accounts shows there was an emphasis on financial accountability.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-historical-significance-and-limitations\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Historical_Significance_and_Limitations\"><\/span>Historical Significance and Limitations<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This system shows how the Kudavolai system allowed for structured selection of people to take part in local administration. The inscriptions give a great amount of detail about who could be nominated, the requirements of eligibility, the process of selection via lot and how the committees would work and be accountable. Therefore showing evidence of structured local self-government within early Medieval Tamil Nadu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However, there were limitations. There were many requirements to become eligible such as property, education and more. As Uttaramerur was a Brahmin settlement we cannot assume that everyone in society had equal political input as the inscriptions only show how the Sabha worked in this Brahmin area. We cannot assume that this system was similar to modern elections with universal adult suffrage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Despite these limitations, this shows an important example of structured local administration within Indian History. It gives us insight into how structured the village system became and how committees were selected using specific rules.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-decline-and-transformation-of-electoral-institutions-during-the-medieval-period\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Decline_and_Transformation_of_Electoral_Institutions_During_the_Medieval_Period\"><\/span>Decline and Transformation of Electoral Institutions During the Medieval Period<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The medieval period led to many changes within the political systems of India. With the rise of kingdoms, changes in land ownership and centralization of power, the local institutions began to change. Village assemblies still existed however the amount of power and independence they had varied between regions. This meant that the decline of electoral institutions was not consistent throughout the country.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-changes-in-south-indian-village-assemblies\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Changes_in_South_Indian_Village_Assemblies\"><\/span>Changes in South Indian Village Assemblies<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">South India saw gradual changes to their village assemblies. The Sabha, Ur and Nattar played important roles in land management, irrigation, taxation and local conflict. However, political changes meant that these institutions lost some of their independence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Many of the previous independent institutions during the Vijayanagara period declined and were restructured. Local administration became more influenced by the Nayaks and other regional leaders.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-decline-of-chola-political-power\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Decline_of_Chola_Political_Power\"><\/span>Decline of Chola Political Power<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The decline of Chola political power during the 13 th Century led to political changes in Tamilakam. Despite this, historical research has shown that local assemblies were still involved in economic and administrative tasks.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However the power was starting to become more influenced by the changing political and tax systems. This suggests that although the system had changed, there was still some local autonomy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-village-administration-during-the-delhi-sultanate-and-mughal-periods\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Village_Administration_During_the_Delhi_Sultanate_and_Mughal_Periods\"><\/span>Village Administration During the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Periods<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods still had some form of administration at a village level. Elders and Panchayats took part in resolving local conflicts and ensuring traditional practices were upheld.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However during the Mughal period, village officials became an intermediary between the rural community and state. This does not however mean that they were selected in the same way as the Chola inscriptions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-overall-impact-of-the-medieval-period-on-local-self-government\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Overall_Impact_of_the_Medieval_Period_on_Local_Self-Government\"><\/span>Overall Impact of the Medieval Period on Local Self-Government<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Overall, the medieval period shows a time of change for local administration in India. Although some community based institutions still existed, they changed in terms of their role, composition and relationship with political power.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Although the structured selection processes of committees no longer existed in the same way, Panchayats and other local institutions show that community involvement remained an important factor in rural administration in India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-critical-analysis-and-key-findings\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Critical_Analysis_and_Key_Findings\"><\/span>Critical Analysis and Key Findings<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Throughout ancient history there were many examples of collective decision making and selection processes for individuals to take part in administration. However, these varied greatly in terms of their composition, role and amount of involvement from the public.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-vedic-sabha-and-samiti\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Vedic_Sabha_and_Samiti\"><\/span>Vedic Sabha and Samiti<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Vedic Sabha and Samiti show an early example of collective decision making. Whilst there is debate around how much political power they had, they are mentioned in Vedic literature showing how important assemblies were within their early communities. However, they do not show a structured system of universal elections.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-gana-sanghas-of-the-mahajanapada-period\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Gana-Sanghas_of_the_Mahajanapada_Period\"><\/span>Gana-Sanghas of the Mahajanapada Period<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Gana-Sanghas of the Mahajanapada period show a more advanced example of community based political systems. Different communities including the Licchavis, Sakyas and Mallas had assemblies and practiced collective decision making. However, they only had political involvement from acknowledged members of specific ruling groups meaning they were more of an oligarchic system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-buddhist-sangha-and-structured-voting\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Buddhist_Sangha_and_Structured_Voting\"><\/span>Buddhist Sangha and Structured Voting<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Buddhist Sangha show a relatively structured system of decision making. The use of Salaka voting, different ways of voting and majority decisions show how structured the decision making process was. However this was a monastic institution so should not be considered evidence of political elections.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-mauryan-post-mauryan-and-gupta-administration\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Mauryan_Post-Mauryan_and_Gupta_Administration\"><\/span>Mauryan, Post-Mauryan and Gupta Administration<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">During the Mauryan, Post-Mauryan and Gupta periods there was evidence of decentralisation in administration with local officials, merchants, guilds and influential members of the community getting involved. However, the historical sources do not show that these were generally run via popular elections.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-chola-kudavolai-system\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Chola_Kudavolai_System\"><\/span>Chola Kudavolai System<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Chola Kudavolai system shows the most detailed example of a structured selection process. The Uttaramerur inscriptions tell us what the requirements were for candidates, what they were not eligible for, how the committee would work and how they were selected using palm leaf tickets. However, the restrictive selection criteria means we cannot assume this was a system of equal political involvement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-overall-historical-assessment\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Overall_Historical_Assessment\"><\/span>Overall Historical Assessment<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Overall, this study has shown that there were many different traditions of assemblies, collective decision making and selection within ancient India. These were all created with the political, social and administration conditions of the time in mind. Whilst they cannot be seen as the same as modern elections they are an important part of the history of local administration and collective institutions within India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-conclusion\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion\"><\/span>Conclusion<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The electoral systems during ancient times have shown how there were many examples of collective decision making, political involvement and local administration. The Vedic assemblies of Sabha and Samiti show how different communities had ways for acknowledged members to get involved in governance. This shows how important collective decision making was within the early political traditions of India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The use of Salaka, having a voting official and acknowledging majority decisions all show how structured voting was within the Buddhist Sanghas. During the Mauryan, Post-Mauryan and Gupta periods there was growth in administrative institutions with local officials and influential groups becoming involved.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Kudavolai system during the Chola period was an incredibly important example. The inscriptions give great detail on how they were selected, what the requirements were and how the committee would work. This shows how important structured village administration and accountability was. However the restrictive requirements remind us that not everyone had equal involvement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Overall this study has shown that there was no one consistent democratic system for elections in ancient India. These varied depending on the political and social conditions during different periods. Whilst they cannot be seen as the same as modern elections with universal adult suffrage they do provide valuable historical evidence of collective decision making and structured selection. Knowing what they achieved and their limitations gives a more balanced view of India&#8217;s political history and how they contributed to local self-government.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 id=\"h-references\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"References\"><\/span>References<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-a-primary-sources\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"A_Primary_Sources\"><\/span>A. Primary Sources<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>\u1e5ag Veda, Mandala 10, Hymn 191.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Atharva Veda, Kanda 7, Sukta 12.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>D\u012bgha Nik\u0101ya, Mah\u0101parinibb\u0101na Sutta, Sutta 16.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Vinaya Pi\u1e6daka, Cullavagga, Chapters IV and X.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Kautilya, The Arthashastra (R. Shamasastry trans., 2d ed. 1929).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Edicts of A\u015boka (N.A. Nikam &amp; Richard McKeon trans., 1959).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>V. Venkayya, Two Inscriptions at Uttaramallur, in Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1904\u201305, 131\u201345 (1908).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Radhagovinda Basak, The Five Damodarpur Copper-Plate Inscriptions of the Gupta Period, 15 Epigraphia Indica 113\u201345 (1919\u201320).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-b-secondary-sources-books\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"B_Secondary_Sources_%E2%80%93_Books\"><\/span>B. Secondary Sources \u2013 Books<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century (2d ed. 2024).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ram Sharan Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India (3d rev. ed. 1991).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>T.W. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India (1903).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>R.C. Majumdar, Corporate Life in Ancient India (3d ed. 1969).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>D.C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions Bearing on Indian History and Civilization, vol. 1 (2d ed. 1965).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Noboru Karashima, Ancient to Medieval: South Indian Society in Transition (2009).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-c-secondary-sources-articles-and-research-works\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"C_Secondary_Sources_%E2%80%93_Articles_and_Research_Works\"><\/span>C. Secondary Sources \u2013 Articles and Research Works<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Jagdish Prasad Sharma, The Question of the Vid\u00e1tha in Vedic India, 97 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 43\u201356 (1965).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Jagdish Prasad Sharma, Republican and Quasi-Republican Institutions in Ancient India, with Special Reference to the Time of the Buddha (Ph.D. thesis, SOAS University of London).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Radhagovinda Basak, The Five Damodarpur Copper-Plate Inscriptions of the Gupta Period, 15 Epigraphia Indica 113\u201345 (1919\u201320).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h3 id=\"h-d-reference-materials\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"D_Reference_Materials\"><\/span>D. Reference Materials<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1904\u201305 (1908).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Indira Gandhi National Open University, Medieval Society\u2013I: Historiography of the Rural Society.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>INFLIBNET, Uttaramerur Inscription of Parantaka Chola I.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-yoast-seo-related-links yoast-seo-related-links\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/indian-federalism-vs-centralization-gana-sangha-legacy\/\">The Myth of the Monolith: Why India\u2019s Ancient Republics are the Real Key to Modern Federalism<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/the-hindu-marriage-act-1955-structure-applicability-and-scope\/\">The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: Structure, Applicability and Scope<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/uniform-civil-code-india-constitutional-perspective\/\">Feasibility of the Uniform Civil Code in India<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/prisoner-voting-rights-balancing-citizenship-punishment-and-democracy\/\">Prisoner Voting Rights: Balancing Citizenship, Punishment, and Democracy<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/right-to-vote-not-fundamental-right-supreme-court-india\/\">Right to Vote Not a Fundamental Right: Supreme Court Clarifies Election Law in India<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Evolution of Electoral Practices in Ancient India: A Historical Study of Representative Institutions and Participatory Governance 1. Introduction India has a rich history of electoral practices dating back to various political and administrative institutions. Ancient India saw various forms of governance such as monarchies, republics, councils and various local bodies. These bodies provided a space<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1988,"featured_media":35532,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"two_page_speed":[],"_jetpack_hide_featured_image":false,"_jetpack_featured_image_duplicate_dismissed":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"_joinchat":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[4984],"tags":[4985,28],"class_list":["post-35429","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-election-law","tag-election-law","tag-top-news"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v28.8 (Yoast SEO v28.8) - 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