{"id":9875,"date":"2025-10-09T05:18:08","date_gmt":"2025-10-09T05:18:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/?p=9875"},"modified":"2025-10-13T11:07:45","modified_gmt":"2025-10-13T11:07:45","slug":"legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/","title":{"rendered":"Understanding The Legal Relationship Between A Banker And A Customer In India: Challenges Arising From The Debtor And Creditor Relation"},"content":{"rendered":"<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Abstract\"><\/span>Abstract<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The connection between a banker and a customer is the foundation of Indian banking regulations, which are mostly based on the debtor\u2013creditor relationship concept. Despite the relationship&#8217;s seeming simplicity, many real-world problems arise due to its legal ramifications. The relationship includes certain banking duties or activities that may be recast as a debtor of the properties in the money that their customer has advanced to the depository, but which do not follow the typical pattern of debtor\u2013creditor.<\/p><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_82_2 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0c0c0c;color:#0c0c0c\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Abstract\" >Abstract<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Keywords\" >Keywords<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Introduction\" >Introduction<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Relevant_Statutes_and_Areas_of_Legal_Interaction\" >Relevant Statutes and Areas of Legal Interaction<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Research_Questions\" >Research Questions<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Research_Objectives\" >Research Objectives<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Research_Methodology\" >Research Methodology<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Literature_Review\" >Literature Review<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#The_Contractual_Bedrock_and_the_Challenge_of_Adhesion\" >The Contractual Bedrock and the Challenge of Adhesion<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Debtor-Creditor_and_Ancillary_Functions\" >Debtor-Creditor and Ancillary Functions<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Lien_and_Set-Off\" >Lien and Set-Off<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Right_of_General_Lien\" >Right of General Lien<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Right_of_Set-Off\" >Right of Set-Off<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-4' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Conditions_for_Exercising_Set-Off\" >Conditions for Exercising Set-Off<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Ancillary_Functions_and_Special_Relationships\" >Ancillary Functions and Special Relationships<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-16\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#The_Cornerstone_of_Trust_Confidentiality_and_the_Fiduciary_Conundrum\" >The Cornerstone of Trust: Confidentiality and the Fiduciary Conundrum<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-17\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Adapting_to_a_New_Era_Digitalization_Data_Protection_and_Consumer_Redressal\" >Adapting to a New Era: Digitalization, Data Protection, and Consumer Redressal<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-18\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Table_1_Customer_Liability_Framework_for_Unauthorised_Electronic_Transactions_RBI_Circular_July_6_2017_21\" >Table 1: Customer Liability Framework for Unauthorised Electronic Transactions (RBI Circular, July 6, 2017) [21]<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-19\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#The_Bank_as_a_Data_Fiduciary\" >The Bank as a Data Fiduciary<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-20\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Redressal_Systems\" >Redressal Systems<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-21\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Legislative_Tension_SARFAESI_Act_vs_Consumer_Protection_Act\" >Legislative Tension: SARFAESI Act vs Consumer Protection Act<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-22\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Conclusion\" >Conclusion<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-23\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Findings\" >Findings<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-24\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Suggestions\" >Suggestions<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-25\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#Articles_Books_and_Reports\" >Articles, Books, and Reports:<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-26\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/legal-relationship-between-banker-customer-in-india-challenges-arising-debtor-creditor-relation\/#End-Notes\" >End-Notes:<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n<p>These include swinging sequentially, being careful, and maintaining comparative confidentiality. They also fall under the purview of the rules pertaining to banking. On the one hand, the customer&#8217;s status as a creditor is not absolute since the legal system and other factors, such as regulatory authorities and the terms and circumstances of a contract, contain the regime of rights.<\/p>\n<p>This study highlights the conflict between consumer protection and contract freedom in the banking industry by critically examining and analysing the impact of this complex legal relationship on legal ambiguity in areas such as digital banking fraud, rogue transactions, the theory of lien over one&#8217;s banker, and the redefinition of fiduciary poisons.<\/p>\n<p>It also assesses how well the debtor\u2013creditor model safeguards consumers&#8217; rights in our rapidly evolving technical and regulatory environment. The study aims ultimately to propose improvements on how to balance financial stability versus customer security in the banking jurisprudence of India.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Keywords\"><\/span>Keywords<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Keyword<\/th>\n<th>Area<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Banker\u2013Customer Relationship<\/td>\n<td>Core Theme<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Debtor\u2013Creditor<\/td>\n<td>Legal Paradigm<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Banking Law in India<\/td>\n<td>Legal Framework<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Customer Rights<\/td>\n<td>Protection<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Legal Challenges<\/td>\n<td>Issues<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Introduction\"><\/span>Introduction<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The Indian banker\u2013customer relationship has been traditionally shaped and has undergone significant transformation through its history. Initially influenced by pre-independence practices and the activities of agency houses and presidency banks, the relationship began as a simple contractual arrangement. Over time, particularly after the nationalisations of 1969 and 1980, this relationship acquired socio-economic and public policy weight. Banks ceased to be mere commercial destinations; they were expected to fulfil national interests, promote financial inclusion, and deliver services often through remote means such as telephony or other channels. <sup>[1]<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>At the base of this web of interactions lies a creature of law raised by English common law: the debtor\u2013creditor relationship. Though legally convenient and sanctioned, the underlying paradigm is that a customer becomes a creditor to the bank upon deposit and a debtor upon borrowing. One of the important shifts is towards a relationship model grounded in assumptions of good faith, fair dealing, and heightened fiduciary responsibility. This repricing aims to safeguard customers and preserve the public&#8217;s trust in the Indian banking system, which is its backbone.<\/p>\n<p>This paper conducts a critical analysis of the banker\u2013customer relationship in India using both doctrinal and analytical research approaches. It examines principal statutes such as the Indian Contract Act, 1872; the Banking Regulation Act, 1949; and the Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest (SARFAESI) Act, 2002. Judicial precedents from the Supreme Court of India and other higher courts, along with regulatory provisions issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), will also inform the analysis. <sup>[2][3]<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>The route to solutions lies in probing the principles underpinning debt relations between the parties, addressing the existing unequal power balance, assessing the effectiveness of supervisory practices, and proposing reforms. The law of agency between a banker and a customer draws on contract law, common law principles, and statutory provisions. While it manifests differently depending on the transaction&#8217;s character, the prevailing judicial construction treats the relation largely as one of debtor and creditor. This section deconstructs that juridical architecture and clarifies how the debtor\u2013creditor model coexists and sometimes conflicts with other legal roles such as agent, trustee, and bailee.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Relevant_Statutes_and_Areas_of_Legal_Interaction\"><\/span>Relevant Statutes and Areas of Legal Interaction<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Statute \/ Source<\/th>\n<th>Year \/ Abbreviation<\/th>\n<th>Relevance<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"\/legal\/article-5433-introduction-to-indian-contract-act-1872.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Indian Contract Act<\/a><\/td>\n<td>1872<\/td>\n<td>Foundation for contractual aspects of banker\u2013customer relations<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"\/legal\/article-13218-banking-regulation-act-1949.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Banking Regulation Act<\/a><\/td>\n<td>1949<\/td>\n<td>Regulatory framework for banking operations and supervision<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"\/legal\/article-11575-in-depth-analysis-of-the-securitization-and-reconstruction-of-financial-assets-and-enforcement-of-security-interest-act-2002-sarfaesi-act-.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest (SARFAESI) Act<\/a><\/td>\n<td>2002<\/td>\n<td>Measures for recovery of financial assets and enforcement of security interests<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"\/legal\/article-7906-judicial-precedents-in-india.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Judicial Precedents<\/a><\/td>\n<td>\u2014<\/td>\n<td>Interpretation and application of statutory and common law principles by courts<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.legalservicesindia.com\/article\/1822\/The-Reserve-Bank-of-India-and-its-functions.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Reserve Bank of India<\/a><\/td>\n<td>RBI<\/td>\n<td>Regulatory directives and supervisory policies affecting banks and customers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Research_Questions\"><\/span>Research Questions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>How has Indian law and judicial interpretation conceptualised the banker\u2013customer relationship as one of debtor and creditor?<\/li>\n<li>What doctrinal and practical challenges arise from this characterisation, particularly regarding confidentiality, trust, lien, set-off, and electronic banking?<\/li>\n<li>How do inherent power imbalances affect the dual role of the customer as both creditor and debtor in this relationship?<\/li>\n<li>To what extent do statutory frameworks and adjudicatory mechanisms address the challenges posed by the debtor\u2013creditor paradigm in modern banking?<\/li>\n<li>What legislative, policy, or doctrinal reforms are required to recalibrate the banker\u2013customer relationship towards transparency, fairness, and accountability in the digital era?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Research_Objectives\"><\/span>Research Objectives<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>To critically analyse the legal foundations of the banker\u2013customer relationship in India and evaluate the implications of its classification as a debtor\u2013creditor relationship.<\/li>\n<li>To assess the doctrinal and practical challenges posed by the debtor\u2013creditor model, particularly in the context of digital banking, data protection, and the special rights of bankers.<\/li>\n<li>To examine structural power imbalances within the banker\u2013customer relationship and their impact on the customer\u2019s dual role as creditor and debtor.<\/li>\n<li>To evaluate the effectiveness of statutory, regulatory, and adjudicatory frameworks such as the Banking Regulation Act, the SARFAESI Act, and the Banking Ombudsman Scheme in addressing these challenges and safeguarding customer interests.<\/li>\n<li>To propose legislative, policy, and doctrinal reforms aimed at recalibrating the banker\u2013customer relationship towards fairness, transparency, and accountability in a digitising financial ecosystem.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Research_Methodology\"><\/span>Research Methodology<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This study is purely doctrinal research based on the available primary and secondary sources for understanding of banker-customer relationship in India. The primary sources referred are judgments, rules, notifications, Acts, statutes and secondary sources basically include commentaries on the judgment, legal research articles, websites etc.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Literature_Review\"><\/span>Literature Review<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<table><caption>Summary of Selected Literature<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Author(s)<\/th>\n<th>Year<\/th>\n<th>Title<\/th>\n<th>Key Points<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Srivastav, V. V. &amp; Kheria, N.<\/td>\n<td>2020<\/td>\n<td>Annihilation of the Relationship between the Banker and Customer through the Operation of Law<\/td>\n<td>Discusses relations between banker and customer in India and determines its contractual basis and the major debtor-creditor relationship. Observes that while the relationship is contractual, statutory provisions largely inform it; emphasizes increasing issues faced by customers and the need for legal solutions for compensation.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Kumar, A. &amp; Sharma, S.<\/td>\n<td>2024<\/td>\n<td>E-Banking in India: An Analysis of Regulatory Framework and Compliance Challenges<\/td>\n<td>Examines regulatory complexities from the development of e-banking in India; discusses cybersecurity, information privacy, and fraud-prevention challenges. Finds persistent compliance issues despite a strong regulatory framework and recommends enhanced security measures and stronger data protection regulation.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Rupani, R. &amp; Ali, S.<\/td>\n<td>2022<\/td>\n<td>An Analytical Study on the Performance of the Banking Ombudsman Scheme in India<\/td>\n<td>Descriptive study using RBI annual reports; finds complaints to the Ombudsman offices have increased, indicating growing customer confidence. Notes operational issues and calls for wider popularisation, especially in rural and semi-urban areas with low awareness.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\u2014<\/td>\n<td>2024<\/td>\n<td>SARFAESI Act in Practice: Legal Efficacy, Judicial Trends, and Borrower Safeguards<\/td>\n<td>Discusses the effectiveness of the SARFAESI Act; notes the Act enabled banks to reclaim NPAs without court intervention but raised concerns about borrower protection and balance of power between lenders and debtors.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Contractual_Bedrock_and_the_Challenge_of_Adhesion\"><\/span>The Contractual Bedrock and the Challenge of Adhesion<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The relationship between a banker and a customer in India is, at its core, a contractual one, governed by the foundational principles of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. This legal relationship is initiated the moment an individual or entity opens an account and the bank accepts the initial deposit, thereby creating a framework of mutual rights and obligations. While key statutes like the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, and the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881, provide definitions for &#8220;banking&#8221; and &#8220;banker&#8221;, a comprehensive statutory definition of a &#8220;customer&#8221; remains elusive.<\/p>\n<p>Judicial precedent and commercial practice have established that a customer is one who maintains an account with a bank and engages in the course of regular banking business, distinguishing them from individuals involved in casual, one-off transactions. The validity of this relationship hinges on the essential elements of a contract as stipulated in the Contract Act, including free consent, lawful consideration and object, and the legal competence of the contracting parties.<\/p>\n<p>In contemporary banking, the theoretical model of a negotiated agreement has been supplanted by the universal use of standard form contracts, often termed &#8220;contracts of adhesion&#8221;. These are pre-drafted, non-negotiable agreements presented to customers on a &#8220;take it or leave it&#8221; basis, effectively eliminating the element of bargaining that is central to traditional contract theory. This practice inherently creates a significant imbalance of power between the institution and the individual.<\/p>\n<p>The Indian judiciary has demonstrated an increasing willingness to intervene in such situations to protect the weaker party. A landmark precedent was set by the Supreme Court, which held that terms in a standard form contract could be struck down as void under Section 23 of the Indian Contract Act if they are unconscionable, unfair, unreasonable, and opposed to public policy, particularly where bargaining power is grossly unequal. This principle has been extended to the banking sector.<\/p>\n<p>In the recent case, while dealing with an employment bond, the Supreme Court affirmed that in standard form contracts, the onus shifts to the dominant party \u2014 in this case, the bank \u2014 to prove that a restrictive or onerous clause is not oppressive. Although the context was employment, this judgment signals a robust judicial posture against the imposition of arbitrary terms by banks in any of their standard form agreements with customers.<\/p>\n<p>This judicial activism marks a significant evolution in Indian contract law, moving from a rigid doctrine of freedom of contract to a more equitable principle of fairness in contract. The courts are increasingly piercing the veil of signed consent to scrutinize the substantive fairness of the terms themselves, a direct response to the economic reality of large corporations leveraging their dominance. Consequently, any term within a banking contract, whether pertaining to liability, fees, or data usage, is potentially subject to judicial review on grounds of fairness, fundamentally altering how banks must approach the drafting of their terms and conditions.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Debtor-Creditor_and_Ancillary_Functions\"><\/span>Debtor-Creditor and Ancillary Functions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The primary and most frequent relationship between a banker and a customer is that of a debtor and creditor. When a customer deposits money into an account, the bank becomes the debtor, and the customer, the creditor. As established by the Supreme Court[10], the money deposited ceases to be the property of the customer and becomes that of the bank, which is free to use it for its business operations. The bank&#8217;s obligation is simply to repay an equivalent amount upon demand. In this capacity, the depositor is an unsecured creditor of the bank. Conversely, when a bank extends a loan, advance, or overdraft facility, the roles are inverted: the bank assumes the position of the creditor, and the customer becomes the debtor. This debtor-creditor status persists until the loan is fully discharged, as affirmed in cases like Balaji.S vs The Banking Ombudsman[13].<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Lien_and_Set-Off\"><\/span>Lien and Set-Off<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Arising from the debtor-creditor dynamic are two powerful rights vested in the banker: the right of general lien and the right of set-off.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Right_of_General_Lien\"><\/span>Right of General Lien<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Section 171 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, statutorily confers upon bankers the right of general lien. This allows a bank to retain any goods or securities belonging to the customer that have been bailed to it, as security for the general balance of account owed by that customer. Unlike a particular lien, it is not restricted to debts arising from the specific goods being held. This right is often described as an &#8220;implied pledge&#8221;[11], empowering the bank to sell the securities to recover its dues, often without court intervention.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Right_of_Set-Off\"><\/span>Right of Set-Off<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Distinct from a lien, the right of set-off is a common law remedy that allows a bank to merge a customer&#8217;s accounts. It enables the bank to apply a credit balance in one account to satisfy a debit balance in another account held by the same customer. This right is not a lien over the bank&#8217;s own property but an equitable right arising from the mutual debtor-creditor relationship. Its exercise is subject to specific conditions: the debts must be mutual (in the same name and same right), the amount must be certain and legally recoverable, and the debt must be due.<\/p>\n<table><caption>Comparison: Right of General Lien vs Right of Set-Off<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Feature<\/th>\n<th>Right of General Lien<\/th>\n<th>Right of Set-Off<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Source<\/td>\n<td>Section 171, Indian Contract Act, 1872 (statutory)<\/td>\n<td>Common law \/ equitable remedy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Nature<\/td>\n<td>Right to retain and sell goods or securities bailed to the bank<\/td>\n<td>Right to merge accounts and apply one balance against another<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Scope<\/td>\n<td>General \u2014 covers overall balance, not restricted to specific goods<\/td>\n<td>Applies when debts are mutual and due<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Requires court intervention?<\/td>\n<td>No \u2014 bank may sell securities to recover dues (often without court).<\/td>\n<td>No \u2014 typically exercised by bank, subject to conditions and judicial review.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conditions_for_Exercising_Set-Off\"><\/span>Conditions for Exercising Set-Off<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Condition<\/th>\n<th>Explanation<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Mutuality<\/td>\n<td>Debts must be between the same parties in the same capacity (same name and same right).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Certain Amount<\/td>\n<td>The amount to be set off must be definite and legally recoverable.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Due Debt<\/td>\n<td>The debt to be satisfied must be due (not contingent or prospective).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>While potent, these rights are not absolute. Courts have actively constrained their application, ensuring they are not exercised beyond the scope of a live debtor-creditor relationship. For instance, in cases like Indus Sor Urja Private Limited vs Indian Bank[12] and Balaji S vs The Banking Ombudsman[13], it has been clarified that the bank&#8217;s general lien ceases to exist upon the culmination of the relationship, such as the full repayment of a loan. This judicial check prevents banks from indefinitely holding a customer&#8217;s assets for unrelated or potential future claims, reinforcing the principle that these rights are remedies for existing debts, not perpetual privileges[14].<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Ancillary_Functions_and_Special_Relationships\"><\/span>Ancillary Functions and Special Relationships<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The banker-customer relationship is multifaceted and extends beyond the debtor-creditor paradigm[15], transforming based on the specific service rendered.<\/p>\n<table><caption>Ancillary Roles of a Bank<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Role<\/th>\n<th>When Arises<\/th>\n<th>Bank&#8217;s Obligations<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Agent-Principal<\/td>\n<td>When bank collects cheques, pays standing instructions, or trades securities on behalf of a customer<\/td>\n<td>Act for the principal (customer) in carrying out instructions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Bailor-Bailee<\/td>\n<td>When a customer entrusts valuables to the bank for safekeeping (distinct from a safe deposit locker)<\/td>\n<td>Exercise reasonable care over the goods (Contract Act, Section 151)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Trustee-Beneficiary<\/td>\n<td>When bank holds funds for a specific mandated purpose (e.g., escrow account)<\/td>\n<td>Keep funds separate; do not comingle with general assets; act in fiduciary capacity for that purpose<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>As seen in <em>The National Tobacco Company of India Ltd. v. Simla Banking and Industrial Company Ltd.[16]<\/em>, where a bank collected funds for remittance but failed before the draft was honoured, the court held that the funds were held in trust. This granted the customer the status of a preferential creditor, entitled to recover the full amount, rather than being treated as an ordinary unsecured creditor.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Cornerstone_of_Trust_Confidentiality_and_the_Fiduciary_Conundrum\"><\/span>The Cornerstone of Trust: Confidentiality and the Fiduciary Conundrum<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A cornerstone of the banker-customer relationship is the implied contractual duty of confidentiality. The bank is obligated to maintain secrecy regarding its customer&#8217;s account details, financial standing, and transactions. This common law duty is reinforced by statutes such as the Bankers&#8217; Book Evidence Act, 1891. Disclosure is permissible only in exceptional circumstances, such as under compulsion of law, in the public interest, with the express or implied consent of the customer, or to protect the bank&#8217;s own interests[17].<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a &#8220;fiduciary relationship&#8221; \u2014 one founded on trust and confidence where one party must act in the other&#8217;s best interests \u2014 has been a point of legal contention in banking. While it is accepted that banks hold customer information in a fiduciary capacity with respect to third parties, often justifying non-disclosure under Section 8(1)(e) of the Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005, the broader relationship has been viewed differently. In <em>Uco Bank v. Hem Chandra Sarkar[18]<\/em>, the Supreme Court was reluctant to classify the general banker-customer dynamic as fiduciary, emphasizing its primary nature as that of debtor and creditor.<\/p>\n<p>A paradigm-shifting judgment was delivered by the Supreme Court[19]. The RBI had refused to disclose its inspection and audit reports of commercial banks, arguing that it held such information in a fiduciary capacity. The Court decisively rejected this contention. It ruled that the RBI, as a statutory regulator, owes a primary duty to the public at large, which supersedes any purported fiduciary duty to the banks it oversees. The Court did not consider the existence of some type of relationship of trust between RBI and the banks in this situation, and indicated that good transparency in the operations of such institutions is beneficial to the general welfare and economy of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>This determination essentially reworked the aspect of secrecy and transparency in the Indian financial industry. It brought a clear distinction to the lines of responsibilities whereby a regulator&#8217;s statutory liability to the population ranks higher than its association with controlled parties. The judgment was a direct judicial response to the apparent tension between the inherent requirement of the RTI Act for openness and the banking industry&#8217;s traditional culture of secrecy. The prioritization of the former by the Court has produced a ripple effect that has greatly challenged any attempt by any public authority to use the fiduciary relationship as a cornucopian defence against providing information of public interest. However, with the later acknowledgment by the Supreme Court of a basic right to privacy in the Puttaswamy case and the passage of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, this ruling is now being given renewed scrutiny.<\/p>\n<footer>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Adapting_to_a_New_Era_Digitalization_Data_Protection_and_Consumer_Redressal\"><\/span>Adapting to a New Era: Digitalization, Data Protection, and Consumer Redressal<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The rise of online banking has created the need to restructure the risk distribution of unauthorized online transactions. In response to this, the Reserve Bank of India released an essential circular on the topic of <em>Customer Protection &#8211; Limiting Liability of Customers in Unauthorised Electronic Banking Transactions<\/em> on July 6, 2017. This directive creates a defined and organised liability structure, moving the risk far more towards the consumer. [20]<\/p>\n<p>One requirement is that banks match a customer account and that a customer must furnish a provision of a shadow reversal or robust credit within 10 working days after the customer notifies the bank of a fraudulent reversal or transaction. Moreover, the circular indicates categorically that it will be the responsibility of the bank to prove customer negligence. The snap-on liability structure is as follows.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Table_1_Customer_Liability_Framework_for_Unauthorised_Electronic_Transactions_RBI_Circular_July_6_2017_21\"><\/span>Table 1: Customer Liability Framework for Unauthorised Electronic Transactions (RBI Circular, July 6, 2017) [21]<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<table border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"6\"><caption>Customer liability by circumstance and reporting time<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Circumstances of Fraud<\/th>\n<th>Time of Reporting by Customer<\/th>\n<th>Customer&#8217;s Liability<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Contributory fraud\/negligence\/deficiency by the bank<\/td>\n<td>Irrespective of reporting time<\/td>\n<td>Zero<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Third-party breach (deficiency not with bank or customer)<\/td>\n<td>Within 3 working days<\/td>\n<td>Zero<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Third-party breach (deficiency not with bank or customer)<\/td>\n<td>Within 4 to 7 working days<\/td>\n<td>Limited: Up to transaction value or a specified cap (\u20b95,000 for BSBD accounts; \u20b910,000 for Savings\/most Credit Cards; \u20b925,000 for others)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Third-party breach (deficiency not with bank or customer)<\/td>\n<td>Beyond 7 working days<\/td>\n<td>As per the bank&#8217;s board-approved policy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Negligence by the customer (e.g., sharing credentials)<\/td>\n<td>Until the transaction is reported<\/td>\n<td>Full liability for all losses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Negligence by the customer (e.g., sharing credentials)<\/td>\n<td>After the transaction is reported<\/td>\n<td>Zero liability for any further loss<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_Bank_as_a_Data_Fiduciary\"><\/span>The Bank as a Data Fiduciary<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This was further changed with the passing of the <strong>Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023<\/strong> (DPDP Act). According to this law, banks are the entities that decide the motive and the method to handle personal data and should be categorized as <strong>Data Fiduciaries<\/strong>. This title comes with a whole bunch of new and tough requirements. [22]<\/p>\n<p>Now the consent process for data must be free, precise, informed and unambiguous for customers (termed Data Principals) before the processing of data can take place. Banks must also ensure that the data is accurate, have strong technical and organizational security policies in place to prevent data breaches, ensure their privacy notices are clear and accessible, and enable customers\u2019 ability to access, correct, and request erasure of their personal data.<\/p>\n<p>Banks processing large amounts of sensitive information could be categorized as <strong>Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs)<\/strong>, which necessitates further compliance costs, including appointment of a Data Protection Officer (DPO) based in India and conducting regular data protection impact evaluations. [23]<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Redressal_Systems\"><\/span>Redressal Systems<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>New consumer grievance redressal systems have been developed along with these regulatory developments. To form a unified One Nation One Ombudsman platform, the RBI combined all its different ombudsman schemes into the <strong>Reserve Bank &#8211; Integrated Ombudsman Scheme, 2021<\/strong>. This makes it easier for customers to complain in cases of any form of deficiency in service by the banks and other entities regulated by the RBI. [24]<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Legislative_Tension_SARFAESI_Act_vs_Consumer_Protection_Act\"><\/span>Legislative Tension: SARFAESI Act vs Consumer Protection Act<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>At the same time, there is a crisis in legal structure between two very strong laws. The <strong>SARFAESI Act, 2002<\/strong>, is lender-friendly legislation that allows financial institutions to recover non-performing assets by taking possession of secured assets without court proceedings. On the other hand, the <strong>Consumer Protection Act, 2019<\/strong> provides a solid foundation for a borrower to file a lawsuit against dishonest banking practices, such as the employment of hidden fees or covert recovery techniques.<\/p>\n<table border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"6\"><caption>Comparison: SARFAESI Act (2002) and Consumer Protection Act (2019)<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Aspect<\/th>\n<th>SARFAESI Act, 2002<\/th>\n<th>Consumer Protection Act, 2019<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Primary Focus<\/td>\n<td>Creditor-friendly recovery of non-performing assets<\/td>\n<td>Protection of consumer rights and redressal of unfair practices<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Procedure<\/td>\n<td>Non-judicial possession and recovery mechanisms<\/td>\n<td>Civil remedies, consumer complaints, and penalties for unfair practices<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Impact on Borrower<\/td>\n<td>Allows faster asset recovery by lenders<\/td>\n<td>Provides a platform to challenge unfair bank practices<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>In order to balance these competing interests, the judiciary has proven invaluable. In the case of <em>Mardia Chemicals Ltd. v. Union of India<\/em>, the Supreme Court ruled that the SARFAESI Act was constitutional, but made a significant ruling that the borrower had the right to challenge the bank&#8217;s actions before the Debt Recovery Tribunal, where it could use all of its authority and choose to challenge the tribunal&#8217;s jurisdiction. [25]<\/p>\n<p>This rapid development in the legal system as a result of technological advancements is a fundamental redistribution of risk: for instance, the customer is now primarily responsible for digital security and data privacy, while banks are tasked with ensuring system integrity, controlling data allocation, and proving which party is in breach of the contract. [26] This calls for a drastic shift in the banking industry&#8217;s operations and culture, moving the bank from an active financial market intermediary to a custodian of the customer&#8217;s digital and financial identity.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion\"><\/span>Conclusion<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The realities of the digital age are not reflected in the outdated debtor\u2013creditor paradigm, which has its roots in the in-person banking industry. Today&#8217;s consumers entrust their deposits and vast amounts of extremely sensitive personal data, and the debtor\u2013creditor paradigm is insufficient to safeguard them against the dangers of impersonal, technologically driven financial institutions.<\/p>\n<p>Current regulations reflect this tension: consumer-protective measures like the Banking Ombudsman Scheme and the Fair Practices Code coexist uncomfortably with creditor-empowering statutes like the SARFAESI Act. This gives the impression that the bank is viewed as both a fair service provider and an aggressive creditor.<\/p>\n<p>Although there are procedures for resolving complaints, their scope is constrained, and legal remedies are frequently limited by legislative gaps and commercial deference. Therefore, change must be multifaceted: securing financial data, regulating AI in the loan industry effectively, and turning guidance into mandatory regulations and standards are all crucial. Above all, a philosophy that implies a duty of good faith and fair dealing should be embedded in the bonds that banks have with their customers. Such a norm would promote accountability, fairness, and trust, boosting consumer confidence and long-term sectoral stability.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Findings\"><\/span>Findings<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In India, the interaction between bankers and customers indicates problems that require improvement. There are doctrinal and practical gaps in the old debtor\u2013creditor paradigm because it ignores aspects of contemporary banking that centre on trust, data custodianship, and advisory roles between participants.<\/p>\n<p>Customers are at a disadvantage because of the imbalance of power in the framework, which makes it difficult to distinguish between banking firms with non-negotiable treaties and concurrent responsibilities as creditors and debtors. Risks have increased due to digitalisation, ranging from online fraud and algorithmic bias in credit rating to the possibility of data breaches. The current legal system is poorly structured to address these emerging tensions that don\u2019t align well with older paradigms.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Suggestions\"><\/span>Suggestions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<table border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"6\"><caption>Suggested Reforms to Rebalance the Banker\u2013Customer Relationship<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Issue<\/th>\n<th>Suggested Reform<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Absence of an implied duty of fairness<\/td>\n<td>Introduce an implicit responsibility of good faith and fair dealing to supplement formal contracts<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Algorithmic bias and opaque AI in credit decisions<\/td>\n<td>RBI should establish governance for AI in credit assessment, including algorithmic transparency, explanations for adverse outcomes, and independent audits<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Data protection gaps under DPDP Act<\/td>\n<td>Enforce sector-specific financial data protection rules that impose stringent consent and fiduciary duties on banks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Weak enforcement of fair practices<\/td>\n<td>Strengthen regulatory procedures to ensure implementation of the Fair Practices Code, including fines, expand Ombudsman remedies, and facilitate court review of punitive interest rates<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>These reforms aim to preserve fairness while ensuring banks remain effective financial intermediaries. They would help build accountability and trust in a digitalized financial ecosystem.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Articles_Books_and_Reports\"><\/span>Articles, Books, and Reports:<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>50 Years of Nationalization of Banks \u2014 https:\/\/www.drishtiias.com\/daily-news-editorials\/50-years-of-nationalization-of-banks<\/li>\n<li>IIBF \u2014 https:\/\/www.iibf.org.in\/iib_fincommonterms.asp#:~:text=Right of Set%2DOff : When,against credit balance of Rs.<\/li>\n<li>Rights and Duties of Principle Debtor and Creditor &#8211; Legal Vidhiya \u2014 https:\/\/legalvidhiya.com\/rights-and-duties-of-principle-debtor-and-creditor-2\/#:~:text=Under the law%2C debtors are,Right to Privacy<\/li>\n<li>Significant Data Fiduciary under DPDA 2023 \u2014 https:\/\/dpo-india.com\/Blogs\/significant-data\/<\/li>\n<li>Agarwal A. K. Corporate Governance: Changing Trends in Interpreting Fiduciary Duty. IIM Ahmedabad W.P. No. 2013-10-05.<\/li>\n<li>Ceera, Fairness in Contracts: A Consumer Law Perspective | National Law School of India University \u2014 https:\/\/ceerapub.nls.ac.in\/fairness-in-contracts-a-consumer-law-perspective\/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CArticle 14 of the Constitution,attempt to give some illustrations.<\/li>\n<li>Chirieac Roxana. Considerations on Unfair Terms in Bank Credit Contracts. Technium Social Sciences Journal. 12. 101-112. 10.47577\/tssj.v12i1.1813.<\/li>\n<li>Consultants VK, Restriction on Sharing of Information \u2014 https:\/\/vinodkothari.com\/2019\/11\/restriction-on-sharing-of-information\/<\/li>\n<li>Datta P, Judicial Review of Central Banks: An Indian Perspective \u2014 https:\/\/blogs.law.ox.ac.uk\/oblb\/blog-post\/2023\/01\/judicial-review-central-banks-indian-perspective<\/li>\n<li>LawTeacher, Legal Relationship between Bank and Customer \u2014 https:\/\/www.lawteacher.net\/free-law-essays\/commercial-law\/general-legal-relationship-between-bank-and-customer-commercial-law-essay.php<\/li>\n<li>Oxford Dictionary, Banking Regulation Act 1949 and John Paget S, UNIT-I Banker and Customer \u2014 https:\/\/klesjgcc.edu.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/Law-and-Practice-of-Banking-B.Com-IV.pdf<\/li>\n<li>Reserve Bank of India vs Jayantilal N. Mistry AIR 2016 Supreme Court 1.<\/li>\n<li>Reserve Bank of India, Customer Protection \u2013 Limiting Liability of Customers in Unauthorised Electronic Banking Transactions, RBI Circular No. DBR.No.Leg.BC.78\/09.07.005\/2017-18 July 6, 2017 \u2014 https:\/\/rbidocs.rbi.org.in\/rdocs\/notification\/PDFs\/NT78BBF1B632E62F4F6E985914A9E2C62C71.PDF<\/li>\n<li>Sarvaria A, Banker&#8217;s Right to Lien Under Section 171 Of Indian Contract Act \u2014 https:\/\/www.mondaq.com\/india\/contracts-and-commercial-law\/1161896\/bankers-right-to-lien-under-section-171-of-indian-contract-act<\/li>\n<li>Shikder S, Banker-Customer Relationship \u2014 https:\/\/nhck.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/banker_and_customer_relationship.pdf<\/li>\n<li>Taxmann, Obligations of Data Fiduciaries under DPDP Act 2023 \u2014 https:\/\/www.taxmann.com\/post\/blog\/obligations-of-data-fiduciaries-under-dpdp-act<\/li>\n<li>VDPC, What Are the Bank\u2019s Responsibilities in Protecting Customer Data \u2014 https:\/\/vdpc.vn\/en\/banks-responsibilities-protecting-customer-data\/#:~:text=Banks are responsible for ensuring,English<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"End-Notes\"><\/span>End-Notes:<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>50 Years of Nationalization of Banks \u2014 https:\/\/www.drishtiias.com\/daily-news-editorials\/50-years-of-nationalization-of-banks<\/li>\n<li>Rights and Duties of Principle Debtor and Creditor &#8211; Legal Vidhiya \u2014 https:\/\/legalvidhiya.com\/rights-and-duties-of-principle-debtor-and-creditor-2\/#:~:text=Under the law%2C debtors are,Right to Privacy<\/li>\n<li>Datta P, Judicial Review of Central Banks: An Indian Perspective \u2014 https:\/\/blogs.law.ox.ac.uk\/oblb\/blog-post\/2023\/01\/judicial-review-central-banks-indian-perspective<\/li>\n<li>Oxford Dictionary, Banking Regulation Act 1949 and John Paget S, UNIT-I Banker and Customer \u2014 https:\/\/klesjgcc.edu.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/Law-and-Practice-of-Banking-B.Com-IV.pdf<\/li>\n<li>LawTeacher, Legal Relationship between Bank and Customer \u2014 https:\/\/www.lawteacher.net\/free-law-essays\/commercial-law\/general-legal-relationship-between-bank-and-customer-commercial-law-essay.php<\/li>\n<li>Central Inland Water Transport Corporation Ltd. v. Brojo Nath Ganguly 1986 AIR 1571<\/li>\n<li>Vijaya Bank &amp; Anr. v. Prashant B Narnaware 2025 Civil Appeal No.11708 of 2016<\/li>\n<li>Ceera, Fairness in Contracts: A Consumer Law Perspective \u2014 https:\/\/ceerapub.nls.ac.in\/fairness-in-contracts-a-consumer-law-perspective\/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CArticle 14 of the Constitution,attempt to give some illustrations.<\/li>\n<li>Chirieac Roxana. Considerations on Unfair Terms in Bank Credit Contracts. Technium Social Sciences Journal. 12. 101-112. 10.47577\/tssj.v12i1.1813.<\/li>\n<li>Shanti Prasad Jain v. The Director of Enforcement 1964 AIR 1023<\/li>\n<li>Sarvaria A, Banker&#8217;s Right to Lien Under Section 171 Of Indian Contract Act \u2014 https:\/\/www.mondaq.com\/india\/contracts-and-commercial-law\/1161896\/bankers-right-to-lien-under-section-171-of-indian-contract-act<\/li>\n<li>Indus Sor Urja Private Limited vs Indian Bank on 29 February 2024 IN THE HIGH COURT OF DELHI W.P.(C) 6390\/2023 &amp; CM APPL. 25177\/2023, CM APPL. 55883\/2023<\/li>\n<li>W.P. No.2895 of 2024<\/li>\n<li>IIBF \u2014 https:\/\/www.iibf.org.in\/iib_fincommonterms.asp#:~:text=Right of Set%2DOff : When,against credit balance of Rs.<\/li>\n<li>Shikder S, Banker-Customer Relationship \u2014 https:\/\/nhck.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/banker_and_customer_relationship.pdf<\/li>\n<li>AIR 1960 CAL 249<\/li>\n<li>Consultants VK, Restriction on Sharing of Information \u2014 https:\/\/vinodkothari.com\/2019\/11\/restriction-on-sharing-of-information\/<\/li>\n<li>1990 AIR 1329<\/li>\n<li>Reserve Bank of India vs Jayantilal N. Mistry AIR 2016 Supreme Court 1<\/li>\n<li>Reserve Bank of India, Customer Protection \u2013 Limiting Liability of Customers in Unauthorised Electronic Banking Transactions, RBI Circular No. DBR.No.Leg.BC.78\/09.07.005\/2017-18 July 6, 2017 \u2014 https:\/\/rbidocs.rbi.org.in\/rdocs\/notification\/PDFs\/NT78BBF1B632E62F4F6E985914A9E2C62C71.PDF<\/li>\n<li>Id at 20<\/li>\n<li>Taxmann, Obligations of Data Fiduciaries under DPDP Act 2023 \u2014 https:\/\/www.taxmann.com\/post\/blog\/obligations-of-data-fiduciaries-under-dpdp-act<\/li>\n<li>Significant Data Fiduciary under DPDA 2023 \u2014 https:\/\/dpo-india.com\/Blogs\/significant-data\/<\/li>\n<li>Reserve Bank of India \u2014 https:\/\/www.rbi.org.in\/commonperson\/english\/scripts\/FAQs.aspx?Id=3407#:~:text=The Reserve Bank %2D Integrated Ombudsman Scheme%2C 2021 (RB%2D,apart from jurisdiction related restrictions.<\/li>\n<li>AIRONLINE 2004 SC 948<\/li>\n<li>VDPC, What Are the Bank\u2019s Responsibilities in Protecting Customer Data \u2014 https:\/\/vdpc.vn\/en\/banks-responsibilities-protecting-customer-data\/#:~:text=Banks are responsible for ensuring,<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/footer>\n\n\n<br><br>\n<blockquote>\n  <p>\n    <strong>Award-Winning Article Written By:<\/strong><\/p>\n\t<ul>\n\t\t<li><strong>Mr.Manav Kothary<\/strong>, first semester LLM student at Hidayatullah \n\t\tNational Law University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh  &#038;<\/li>\n\t\t<li><strong>Adv.Niharika Negi<\/strong>, Practising Advocate at the Hon\u2019ble High \n\t\tCourt and District Courts of Rajasthan, Jodhpur Bench. <\/li>\n\t<\/ul>\n  <figure>\n    <img decoding=\"async\" \n      src=\"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/images\/ae-1.png\" \n      alt=\"Certificate of Excellence awarded by Legal Service India\" \n      style=\"border: 0; width: auto; height: auto;\"><\/figure><p>\n\t<figcaption>\n      Authentication No: OT390619058297-12-1025\n    <\/figcaption>\n  <\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>This research paper critically examines the banker\u2013customer relationship in India, focusing on its legal foundation as a debtor\u2013creditor relationship and its evolution amid technological and regulatory change. It explores how traditional doctrines under the Indian Contract Act, 1872 and Banking Regulation Act, 1949 interact with modern issues such as digital banking, data protection, fiduciary duties, and consumer rights. Through doctrinal and analytical study, it identifies challenges like unequal bargaining power, confidentiality concerns, and digital fraud, and proposes reforms to promote fairness, transparency, and accountability in the banking sector.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":566,"featured_media":9747,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_topic_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_reply_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"two_page_speed":[],"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"_joinchat":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[7],"tags":[],"class_list":{"0":"post-9875","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-banking-finance-laws"},"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/10\/u566-Manav-Kothary-Photo_-1-2.jpg","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9875","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/566"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=9875"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9875\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/9747"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=9875"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=9875"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.legalserviceindia.com\/Legal-Articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=9875"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}