1. Introduction
The use of science in crime investigation and the administration of justice has a long history in India. Although modern forensic science developed only in recent centuries, ancient Indians used scientific methods for detecting crime and identifying individuals. References to such practices can be found in Kautilya’s Arthashastra, written about 2300 years ago.
Ancient Indians were familiar with the uniqueness of fingerprints and palm impressions. These were often used as signatures, particularly by illiterate people. Long before fingerprint science was formally established, Indians recognized that no two handprints were exactly alike.
Over time, forensic science in India evolved from simple identification techniques to sophisticated scientific laboratories equipped with modern technologies such as DNA profiling.
India was among the earliest nations to adopt fingerprinting systematically. Sir William Herschel first used fingerprints in 1858 in the Hooghly district. The Bengal Police established the world’s first Fingerprint Bureau in 1897 under Sir Edward Henry, with major contributions from Indian experts Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose.
One of the earliest reported appellate decisions on fingerprint evidence in India is Emperor v. Sahdeo (1904), where the Nagpur Judicial Commissioner’s Court admitted and evaluated fingerprint analysis under Section 45 of the erstwhile Indian Evidence Act, 1872, marking a foundational judicial recognition of forensic dactyloscopy.
2. Early Development of Forensic Institutions
2.1. Chemical Examiners’ Laboratories
The first major forensic laboratory in India was established in Madras (1849) to investigate deaths caused by poisoning.
Later laboratories were established at:
- Calcutta (1853)
- Agra (1864)
- Bombay (1870)
These laboratories conducted:
- Toxicological examination of poisons
- Blood and semen stain analysis
- Food and drug analysis
- Examination of excisable materials
They provided scientific assistance to law enforcement agencies and courts.
2.2. Anthropometric Bureau (1892)
Before scientific identification methods became available, criminals were identified mainly through memory and physical descriptions.
After the development of Bertillon’s Anthropometric System in 1878, India established an Anthropometric Bureau in Calcutta in 1892.
This system recorded:
- Height
- Head measurements
- Arm length
- Other body dimensions
for identifying habitual criminals.
3. Development of Fingerprint Science
3.1. William Herschel’s Contribution
Sir William Herschel, Collector of Hooghly District in Bengal, discovered that fingerprint patterns remain unchanged throughout a person’s life.
He first used thumb impressions:
- On contracts with local contractors
- For identifying prisoners
His work laid the foundation of fingerprint identification in India.
3.2. Henry System of Fingerprint Classification
In 1891, Sir Edward Richard Henry, Inspector General of Police in Bengal, introduced fingerprints into criminal records.
Two Indian officers made significant contributions:
Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq
- Developed the mathematical formula used for fingerprint classification.
- Helped organize fingerprint records into 1024 categories.
Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose
- Developed fingerprint sub-classification methods.
- Created a telegraphic code for fingerprints.
- Developed a single-digit classification system.
3.3. First Fingerprint Bureau in the World
Recognizing the superiority of fingerprints over anthropometry, the government approved their use for criminal identification.
As a result, the world’s first fingerprint bureau was established in Calcutta in July 1897.
India thus became the pioneer in fingerprint-based personal identification.
3.4. Department of Explosives (1898)
The increasing use of explosives in crimes and accidents led to the establishment of the Department of Explosives in 1898.
Its headquarters were located at Nagpur.
The department:
- Investigated causes of explosions
- Examined explosive materials
- Assisted police investigations
- Helped formulate laws under the Explosives and Petroleum Acts
3.5. Government Examiner of Questioned Documents (GEQD)
In 1904, the British government created the post of Government Handwriting Expert to identify writings on secret documents linked to the Indian freedom movement.
Key Developments
- C.R. Hardless became the first handwriting expert.
- The office shifted to Shimla in 1906.
- It later became known as the Government Examiner of Questioned Documents (GEQD).
Its functions expanded to include:
- Handwriting examination
- Signature verification
- Detection of forged documents
- Examination of invisible writing
The office served both criminal and civil courts.
3.6. Serology Department (1910)
The development of blood analysis led to the establishment of the Serology Department in Calcutta in 1910.
The head was designated as the Imperial Serologist to the Government of India.
The department examined:
- Blood stains
- Semen stains
- Other biological materials
After independence, it became the Office of the Serologist and Chemical Examiner to the Government of India.
3.7. Footprint Section (1915)
A Footprint Section was established under the Bengal CID in 1915.
This unit helped identify criminals through footprints found at crime scenes.
Footprint examination became an important tool in criminal investigations, especially before the development of advanced forensic technologies.
3.8. Note Forgery Section (1917)
To combat counterfeit currency, the Bengal CID established a Note Forgery Section in 1917.
It examined:
- Forged currency notes
- Counterfeit documents
Other government departments also established laboratories for:
- Narcotics analysis
- Liquor analysis
- Testing precious metals
- Security printing verification
3.9. Ballistics Laboratory (1930)
With the increasing use of firearms in crimes, a small ballistics laboratory was established under Calcutta Police in 1930.
The laboratory examined:
- Firearms
- Bullets
- Cartridge cases
- Ammunition
Later, similar laboratories were established across various states.
3.10. Scientific Sections in CID (1936)
In 1936, Bengal CID established a Scientific Section to examine:
- Firearms
- Bullets
- Cartridge cases
- Fingerprints
- Footprints
- Questioned documents
This marked the beginning of multidisciplinary scientific crime investigation.
3.11. First State Forensic Science Laboratory (1952)
India’s first State Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL) was established in Calcutta in 1952 and became fully operational in 1953.
Additional units were gradually added:
- Physics Section
- Footprint Section
- Note Forgery Section
- Chemistry Section
This became India’s first multidisciplinary forensic science laboratory.
3.12. Central Finger Print Bureau (CFPB)
The Central Finger Print Bureau was first established in 1905 at Shimla.
Although temporarily abolished in 1922, it was revived in 1955.
Later it functioned under:
- Intelligence Bureau (IB)
- Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)
- National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)
Its primary role was to coordinate fingerprint records and track interstate criminals.
3.13. Central Detective Training Schools (CDTS)
The first Central Detective Training School (CDTS) was established in Calcutta in 1956.
Later schools were established at:
- Hyderabad (1964)
- Chandigarh (1973)
These institutions trained police officers in:
- Scientific investigation
- Terrorism cases
- Drug offenses
- Traffic accidents
- Crimes against women
3.14. Central Forensic Science Laboratories (CFSLs)
The first Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL) was established at Calcutta in 1957.
Initially it consisted of:
- Forensic Physics
- Forensic Chemistry
- Forensic Biology
- Forensic Ballistics
Subsequently:
- CFSL Hyderabad was established in 1965.
- CFSL Chandigarh became operational after shifting from Lahore.
These laboratories significantly strengthened forensic capabilities in India.
3.15. Central Forensic Institute (CFI)
The combined establishment of:
- CFSL
- CDTS
- GEQD
at Calcutta became known as the Central Forensic Institute (CFI).
A commandant was appointed in 1958 to supervise all these institutions.
4. Advisory Committees and Professional Development
4.1. Central Advisory Committees (1959)
The government established:
- Central Forensic Science Advisory Committee
- Central Medico-Legal Advisory Committee
These committees guided:
- Establishment of laboratories
- Development of forensic practices
- Standardization of procedures
The forensic committee later became the Standing Committee on Forensic Science, which continues to function under the Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D).
4.2. Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences (1960)
The Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences (IAFS) was established in 1960.
Its objectives included:
- Promoting forensic research
- Publishing scientific journals
- Organizing seminars and conferences
- Encouraging exchange of scientific knowledge
4.3. Forensic Science Education in India
Efforts to introduce forensic science into university education began in the 1950s.
Following recommendations by various committees:
- Universities at Sagar, Madras, and Patiala started forensic science courses.
- Plans were made to establish a specialized institute for higher education and research.
4.4. Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science (ICFS)
The Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science (ICFS) was established in New Delhi in 1971.
Its objectives included:
- Training in-service personnel
- Conducting research
- Promoting criminology and forensic science education
It was envisioned as a future center of excellence for forensic studies.
5. Creation of Forensic Science Division (BPR&D)
Following recommendations by experts, the government established the Forensic Science Directorate under BPR&D.
The post of Chief Forensic Scientist was created in 1983 to coordinate forensic science activities across India.
6. Modernization of Forensic Laboratories
In 1983, the Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet recommended modernization of forensic laboratories.
As a result:
- CFSL Delhi
- CFSL Calcutta
- CFSL Hyderabad
were upgraded as major science and technology institutions.
Modern equipment, advanced analytical techniques, and specialized scientific divisions were introduced.
6.1. New Role of CFSLs (1997–1998)
As most states developed their own forensic laboratories, the role of CFSLs changed.
They became:
Centers of Excellence
Responsible for:
- Research and Development (R&D)
- Specialized training
- Standardization of forensic methods
- Referral examination of complex cases
The designated specialization areas became:
| Laboratory | Specialization |
|---|---|
| CFSL Calcutta | Forensic Biological Sciences |
| CFSL Hyderabad | Forensic Chemical Sciences |
| CFSL Chandigarh | Forensic Physical Sciences |
6.2. DNA Typing Laboratory (1998)
A major milestone was achieved in 1998 with the establishment of India’s first Forensic DNA Typing Laboratory at CFSL Calcutta.
The laboratory introduced advanced DNA technologies, including
- Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
- HLA-DQ Alpha Analysis
- Polymarker Techniques
- Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
- Short Tandem Repeat (STR) DNA Profiling
The laboratory assists in:
- Murder investigations
- Rape cases
- Paternity disputes
- Organ transplant verification
- Baby exchange cases
7. Conclusion
The history of forensic science in India reflects a remarkable journey from ancient fingerprint identification practices mentioned in Arthashastra to modern DNA profiling and advanced forensic laboratories. Over the years, India has established a strong network of forensic institutions, research centers, training academies, and specialized laboratories. These developments have greatly strengthened criminal investigation, evidence analysis, and the administration of justice, making forensic science an indispensable part of the Indian criminal justice system.
